1 

I 


CREOSOTED  TIMBER 


ITS  PREPARATION  AND 
USES. 


Norfolk  Creosoting  Co. 


NORFOLK,  VIRGINIA, 
U.  S.  A. 


E.  A.  BUELL,  President. 
WARNER  MILLER,  Vice-President. 
EDMUND  CHRISTIAN,  General  Manager. 
LOUIS  CHABLE,  Secretary. 


The  present  annual  consumption  of  timber  for  industrial 

purposes  in  the  United  States  is  about  40,000,000,000  feet  B.  M.  There  is,  at 
this  date,  not  more  than  21,300,000,000,000  feet  B.  M.  oi  standing  timber,  or 
less  than  sixty  years'  supply.  This  does  not  account  for  firewood  or  for  the 
timber  burned  in  annual  forest  fires.  Of  the  coniferous  growth  the  stand- 
ing supply  in  the  Eastern  States  will  not  last  more  than  about  sixteen  years, 
at  the  present  rate  of  cut ;  and  the  supply  on  the  Pacific  Coast  will  not 
lengthen  this  period  more  than  thirty  years.— Forest  Statistics  for  the  United 
States,  1898. 


PREFACE. 


FREQUENT  allusions  are  made  by  ancient  writers  to  vari- 
ous substances  employed  for  the  preservation  of  timber 
and  other  vegetable  fibre  from  decay.  Tar  and  pitch  were 
used  for  the  preservation  of  the  statue  of  Zeus  by  Phidias 
which  stood  in  a  grove  at  Olympus.  The  platform  upon 
which  it  stood  was  painted  at  regular  periods  with  a  bitu- 
minous oil.  The  statue  of  Diana  at  Ephesus  was  of  wood  ; 
even  if  its  origin  was  miraculous,  miracles  were  not  relied 
upon  for  its  preservation,  as  Pliny  asserts  upon  the  authority 
of  Mucianus  that  the  statue  was  kept  saturated  with  the 
Oil  of  Nard,  which  was  much  alike  the  Dead  Oil  of  Coal  Tar 
of  modern  commerce. 

Of  all  the  methods  employed  by  the  human  race  for  the 
preservation  of  organic  substances,  there  are  perhaps  none 
which  have  been  as  good  as  those  employed  by  the  ancient 
Egyptians.  The  results  of  their  processes  have  lasted 
through  centuries  and  have  absolutely  proved  the  value  of 
antiseptics  for  the  preservation  of  animal  and  vegetable 
matter.  When  Pettigrew  succeeded  in  withdrawing  by 
maceration  the  preservative  from  the  heart  of  a  mummy 
embalmed  three  thousand  years  before,  the  heart  at  once 
began  to  putrify  ;  a  striking  proof  of  the  efficacy  of  the  sub- 
stances employed  for  its  preservation,  and  that  the  im- 
munity from  decay  was  not  due  to  an  absolute  chemical 
transformation. 

The  Naphthalene  of  Dead  Oil  is  to  modern  wood  preserva- 
tion what  the  Oil  of  Bitumen  was  to  the  preservation  of 
animal  matter,  and  it  is  of  these  important  processes  that  the 
Norfolk  Creosoting  Company  speaks  through  the  pages  of 
this  book  to  those  whose  interests  make  wooden  structures 
desirable.  The  processes  described  represent  the  best 
modern  practice  in  America  and  Europe,  as  developed  and 
elaborated  since  Dead  Oil  of  Coal  Tar  came  into  use  as  a 
timber  preservative. 

793312 


CREOSOTED  TIMBER— ITS  PREPA- 
RATION AND  USES. 


THE   DESTRUCTIVE   TEREDO. 

MANY  who  are  familiar  with  the  name  and  destructive 
work  of  the  teredo,  or  ship- worm,  are  ignorant  of  that 
mollusk's  history,  of  the  method  of  its  construction,  and  of 
the  principles  involved  in  its  operations.  The  following  es- 
say, compiled  from  various  sources,  on  this  bivalve  covers  the 
ground  in  a  manner  that  will,  perhaps,  prove  satisfactory 
alike  to  scientific  and  unscientific  inquirers. 

The  teredo  may  have  been  hatched  from  one  of  a  million 
eggs  from  the  same  parent.  In  the  earliest  period  of  its 
active  life  it  is  a  free  swimmer  ;  its  body  is  at  that  time  al- 
most if  not  entirely  contained  within  a  bivalve  shell ;  it  has 
eyes,  and  it  has  what  is  called  a  foot,  a  soft,  muscular  mem- 
ber projecting  slightly  from  the  body  ;  it  is  also  provided 
with  two  siphon  tubes,  side  by  side  and  opening  in  the  same 
direction,  through  one  of  which  it  takes  in  food  and  water 
and  through  the  other  it  ejects  its  waste.  At  this  stage  of  its 
existence  the  teredo  may  be  no  bigger  than  a  pin's  head ;  it 
may  not  be  so  big.  While  it  is  still  of  this  diminutive  size 
it  attaches  itself  by  means  of  its  foot  to  whatever  wood  it  may 
encounter,  perhaps  to  a  pile,  and  it  begins  at  once  to  bore. 
How  the  teredo  bores,  whether  with  its  foot  or  with  its 
shell,  is  not  absolutely  known.  The  hole  it  makes  is  ex- 
tremely small,  like  the  animal  itself ;  but  once  inside  the 
teredo  begins  to  grow  rapidly,  increasing  the  size  of  its  hole 
along  with  its  own  growth  in  a  cone-shaped  enlargement  un- 
til it  has  attained  its  size,  after  which  the  hole  or  burrow  is 
continued  at  a  substantially  uniform  diameter.  The  tere- 
do's eyes  now  disappear ;  it  has  no  further  use  for  them,  for 


;8  -  ,  ^  CREOSOTED    TIMBER 

it  spends  the  remainder,  and  by  far  the  greater  part,  of  its 
life  within  the  wood. 

The  picture  here  given  was  drawn  from  a  teredo  removed 
from  the  wood  in  which  it  was  boring.  One  valve  or  half 
of  the  teredo's  shell  is  here  shown  ;  there  is  a  corresponding 
half  upon  the  other  side  of  the  body.  The  teredo's  foot  is 
at  this  end  of  the  body,  at  the  opening  in  front  between  the 
two  valves  of  the  shell.  The  teredo's  body,  including  its 
vital  parts,  is  still  almost  wholly  contained  within  the  limits 
of  its  shell,  as  in  its  earlier  youth  it  was  contained  almost, 
if  not  entirely ;  the  rest  of  the  now  greatly  elongated  teredo, 
and  much  the  greater  part  of  its  length,  from  a  point  a 
little  distance  back  of  its  shell  to  the  other  extremity,  is  in 
reality  but  the  skinny  covering  of  the  teredo's  now  greatly 
elongated  siphon  tubes.  In  appearance,  however,  this  is  all 


A  Little  Teredo  Navalis,  about  actual  size. 

the  body  of  the  teredo,  which  has  grown  greatly,  while  the 
shell,  though  it  has  grown  greatly,  too,  seems  relatively  to 
have  grown  but  little  ;  it  does  not  now  seem  to  be  the  shell 
of  the  mollusk,  but  a  very  small,  thin  and  curiously  formed 
shell  attached  to  the  mollusk's  head.  At  the  teredo's  other 
extremity  there  are  two  small,  thin,  double-pointed  shelly 
projections,  extending  out  parallel  with  each  other  and  at 
a  little  distance  apart,  which  are  called  stylets  or  pallets. 

These  parts  of  the  teredo's  siphon  tubes  that  remain 
within  the  body  or  skinny  covering  are  joined  together;  the 
parts  that  are  thrust  out  beyond  the  body,  the  ends  of  the 
tubes,  are  divided,  and  these  it  puts  forth  between  the  stylets. 
If  the  teredo  is  alarmed  it  draws  in  its  siphons,  and  if  it  is 
sought  out  in  its  burrow  by  some  sharp-toothed  enemy  it 
closes  the  sharp-pointed  pallets  together  over  its  siphon  tubes 
to  protect  them. 


ITS   PREPARATION   AND    USES 


9 


There  are  many  varieties  of  the  teredo.  The  shells  and 
stylets,  which  vary  more  or  less  in  shape,  are  among  their 
distinguishing  marks.  The  picture  shows  a  small  Teredo 
navalis.  A  water-soaked  twig  containing  a  living  teredo  is 
illustrated  here  at  about  its  actual  size. 

The  curved  tubes  that  appear  above  the  highest  point  of 
the  branch  are  the  siphon  tubes  of  the  teredo,  which  is 
inside  the  wood  below  and|boring  downward ;  along  the  up- 


Showing  the  Teredo's  Siphon  Tubes. 

per  side  of  the  branch  are  the  shells  of  dead  barnacles.  The 
teredo,  from  shells  to  stylets,  is  probably  somewhere  between 
an  inch  and  a  quarter  and  two  inches  in  length.  Its  longer 
siphon  tube,  the  intake  tube,  is  sometimes  extended  in  the 
water  clear  of  the  wood  for  a  length  of  an  inch  and  three 
quarters ;  the  shorter  or  outflow  tube  may  then  be  extended 
to  a  length  of  half  an  inch.  The  teredo's  longer  tube,  how- 
ever, is  more  likely  to  be  extended  about  an  inch  clear  of 
the  wood,  with  the  shorter  pipe  correspondingly  shorter. 
The  tubes  vary  in  diameter  also  from  time  to  time,  their 


ITS   PREPARATION   AND   USES  11 

thickness  ranging  from  one  thirty-second  to  three  sixty- 
fourths  of  an  inch.  In  color  they  are  of  a  milky  white. 

The  tubes,  especially  the  longer  one,  are  pretty  nearly 
always  in  motion.  The  long  tube  is  swayed  here  and  there 
in  the  water,  sometimes  quickly,  oflener  more  slowly,  and 
sometimes  with  an  undulating  movement  like  that  with 
which  an  elephant  at  times  sways  its  trunk.  The  long 
tube  may  be  extended  at  a  right  angle  as  seen  in  the  picture, 
or  it  may  be  extended  almost  straight  down  along  the  branch, 
or  it  may  be  bent  over  in  the  direction  opposite  to  that  in 
which  it  here  appears,  or  it  may  be  pointing  straight  up,  with, 
it  may  be,  one  or  two  slight  curves  in  it,  but  it  is  usually  more 
or  less  in  motion,  and  more  or  less  curved.  The  end  of  this 
tube  appears  sometimes  like  the  smooth  opening  of  an  ordi- 
nary pipe  ;  sometimes  it  has  a  regularly  notched  saw-tooth 
edge,  reminding  the  observer  of  the  ornamental  crown  piece 
on  the  top  of  the  smokestack  of  a  Western  river  steamer ; 
sometimes  it  looks  as  though  a  jog  had  been  cut  in  the  end, 
the  pipe  being  sawed  through  for  half  its  diameter  and  the 
part  so  sawed  split  away  from  the  end,  the  projecting  lap 
thus  left  folding  over  the  opening  to  close  the  pipe  when 
the  teredo  wishes  to  close  it.  Sometimes  the  pipe  has  a  little 
shoulder  in  it  all  around  close  to  the  end,  the  extreme  end 
section  or  tip  of  the  pipe  then  being  uniformly  smaller  than 
the  rest ;  sometimes  when  closed  the  pipe  is  pointed,  like 
the  smaller  pipe  as  seen  in  the  picture. 

The  teredo  does  not  eat  the  wood  which  it  bores  ;  it  feeds 
on  infusoria,  most  minute  forms  of  animal  life,  which  it 
draws  into  its  intake  tube  as  it  sweeps  the  tube  about,  or 
which  it  takes  perhaps  from  the  surface  of  the  wood  in 
which  it  is  boring.  The  teredo  can  produce  a  vacuum  in 
its  in-current  tube,  causing  a  current  to  lead  to  it  in  the 
waters  without,  and  so  enabling  it  to  control  for  its  supply 
a  greater  body  of  water  than  it  could  actually  reach.  Hav- 
ing taken  in  a  supply  of  food,  the  in-current  tube  is  closed 
and  the  food  is  carried  to  the  stomach  ;  the  surplus  water 
and  the  waste  are  carried  off  through  the  outflow  tube. 

While  the  teredo  thus  supplies  itself  with  food  it  works 


12  CREOSOTED   TIMBER 

away  at  its  boring  below,  sending  up  the  bored -out  material 
through  its  outflow  tube  and  discharging  it  into  the  water. 
Under  ordinary  conditions  these  borings  are  dissipated  ;  in 
motionless  water  the  borings  fall  almost  straight  to  the 
bottom,  from  whatever  point  in  the  water  at  which  the 
momentum  imparted  to  them  in  throwing  them  out  ceased. 

The  teredo  moves  its  outflow  tube  about  in  different 
directions  as  it  does  its  inflow  tube,  so  that  the  borings  are 
thrown  in  various  directions.  The  upper  sides  of  the  nearer 
barnacle  shells  and  the  end  of  the  little  branch  are  covered 
with  a  fine  debris  from  the  teredo's  excavations.  The  teredo 
has  its  periods  of  rest  and  of  greater  or  less  activity.  When 
working  slowly  it  throws  up  its  borings  in  very  minute 
irregular  shaped  fragments;  when  working  more  rapidly  it 
often  throws  its  borings  up  in  what  look  like  eight-inch 
long  or  shorter  sections  of  fine  brown  thread,  the  color  being 
that  of  the  wood,  the  form  resulting  perhaps  from  the  com- 
pacting together  into  apparently  one  piece  before  delivery 
of  many  of  the  minute  particles  such  as  it  at  other  times 
delivers  separately. 

Almost  immediately  upon  beginning  its  boring  in  the 
wood,  the  teredo  begins  to  line  the  hole  it  bores  from  a 
secretion  of  its  own  with  a  substance  that  forms  a  thin,  limy 
shell,  or  tube,  attached  to  the  walls  of  the  hole.  The  teredo 
extends  this  lining  forward  as  it  bores,  and  when  it  has 
gone  as  far  as  it  intends  to  go,  it  extends  the  thin,  shelly 
lining  around  in  the  rounded  end  of  the  boring,  thus  com- 
pleting it. 

There  is  printed  herewith,  at  a  little  more  than  its  actual 
size,  a  picture  of  a  fragment  of  wood  split  from  a  branch 
which  had  been  bored  by  small  teredos,  showing  longitudi- 
nal sections  of  two  borings,  and  showing  in  the  upper  of  the 
two  borings  a  small  portion  remaining  of  the  thin,  shelly 
lining. 

The  habit  of  the  teredo,  after  it  once  gets  inside  the  wood, 
is  to  bore  with  the  grain.  It  never  bores  into  its  neighbor's 
burrow,  though  it  may  bore  exceedingly  close  to  it ;  it  never 
crosses  another  burrow  in  search  of  solid  wood ;  it  never 


ITS   PREPARATION   AND   USES 


13 


bores  out  to  the  surface  again.  The  teredo  is  highly  con- 
tractile. Sometimes  when  it  has  bored  as  far  as  it  can  go 
and  retain  its  communication  with  the  water  by  means  of 
its  siphons,  which  is  essential  to  its  existence,  it  contracts 
to  half  its  length  and  starts  a  boring  at  almost  a  right  angle 
with  its  previous  boring,  continuing  in  that  direction  until 
it  is  far  enough  away  to  clear  the  previous  boring,  and  then 
starting  along  the  grain  again  in  the  same  direction  as  at 
first. 


Fragments  of  a  Split  Twig,  showing  Longitudinal  Section  of  Teredo's 
Burrows. 

In  Northern  waters  the  teredo  attains  a  length  of  three  or 
four  inches  and  more,  sometimes  ten  inches ;  there  are 
some  species  in  these  waters,  however,  that  are  smaller  than 
any  here  described.  In  tropical  waters  the  teredo  commonly 
attains  a  length  of  ten  inches,  and  there  are  teredos  that 
grow  to  be  six  feet  long. 

The  teredo  attacks  wharves,  boats,  fish-net  stakes,  any 


ITS    PREPARATION   AND   USES  15 

wood  under  water  that  is  unprotected.  The  holes  made  by 
the  teredos  in  the  outside  of  the  wood  are  so  small  that  they 
may  be  unnoticed,  while  inside  the  wood  may  be  honey- 
combed. A  pile,  for  example,  the  teredos  might  attack  all 
the  way  up  from  the  bottom  to  the  high  water  line.  Such  a 
stick  might  be  fair  upon  the  outside  and  yet  be  easily  broken 
off  by  a  slight  shock  from  a  boat  swaying  against  it,  and 
then  be  discovered  to  be  perforated  with  borings  in  its 
whole  diameter. 


CREOSOTE'S    SCIENTIFIC    STANDING. 

DEAD   OIL  OF  COAL  TAR  UNIFORMLY  SUCCESSFUL. 

Many  years  of  experiment  have  proved  that  no  process, 
calculated  for  the  preservation  of  timber,  can  hope  for  success 
unless  it  replaces  the  liquid  and  semi-liquid  portions  of  the 
wood  with  a  substance  that  is  insoluble  and  nonvolatile, 
and  under  the  conditions  which  obtain  in  each  particular 
case. 

Four  substances  approximate  this  requirement.  Dead 
Oil  of  Coal  Tar,  usually  called  "  Creosote,"  a  distillate  of 
the  volatile  portion  of  the  bituminous  coals  ;  Chlorid  of 
Zinc,  Sulphate  of  Copper,  and  Bichlorid  of  Mercury.  All 
of  these  have  violent  toxic  effects  when  exhibited  in  the 
presence  of  organic  bodies,  and  all  are  within  reach  com- 
mercially. Each  of  them  appropriately  applied  by  the 
methods  known  respectively  as  the  Bethell  Dead  Oil  of  Coal 
Tar  Process,  familiarly  called  Creosoting  ;  Burnettizing,  Zinc 
Chlorid  Process  ;  Margaryizing,  Sulphate  of  Copper  Process, 
and  Kyanizing,  Bichlorid  of  Mercury  Process,  have  had  a 
more  or  less  extended  use.  Only  one  of  these  processes, 
Creosoting,  has  proven  uniformly  and  universally  successful, 
it  meeting  all  the  conditions  of  exposure  to  which  structural 
timber  is  subjected.  The  remaining  three,  while  good  as 
antiseptic  treatment,  are  quite  unlike  Creosoting  in  that 


16  CREOSOTED   TIMBER 

the  conglomerates  are  very  soluble  in  water,  even  at  normal 
temperature,  and  so  in  a  comparatively  short  time  dis- 
appear under  the  influence  of  the  moisture  of  the  surround- 
ings. The  preserving  liquid  being  replaced  by  water  it  is 
but  a  step  to  the  setting  up  of  fermentative  action  and  dete- 
rioration. The  Bethell,  or  "  Creosoting  "  Process,  as  a  timber 
preservative  has  been  uniformly  successful  from  its  inception 
in  1836.  For  some  years  the  apparatus  used  was  from  neces- 
sity crude  and  primitive,  but  as  the  demand  for  artificially 
preserved  wood  increased  from  year  to  year,  the  methods  of 
its  preparation  were  more  and  more  refined  and  perfected, 
until,  at  the  present  day,  the  manufacturer  can  guarantee  a 
product  as  certain  in  its  quality  and  uniformity  as  that  of 
any  other  industrial  works. 

While  the  conditions  controlling  the  use  of  artificially 
preserved  wood  are  those  that  influence  the  choice  of  any 
other  building  material,  it  can  be  laid  down  as  a  cardinal 
principle,  that  for  all  structural  purposes  to  which  wood  is 
applicable,  artificially  preserved  timber  is,  for  economic 
reasons,  in  every  way  superior  to  the  natural  product.  There 
are  varying  circumstances  which  indicate  special  treatment 
to  meet  individual  cases.  As  Creosoting,  or  Dead  Oil  of 
Coal  Tar  Process,  properly  conducted  does  not  alter  the 
elastic  limit  or  affect  the  ultimate  strength  of  the  natural 
wood,  it  follows  that  those  varieties  of  timber  which  are 
suitable  for  structural  purposes,  save  only  that  they  quickly 
decay,  have,  by  this  means,  their  only  defect  made  good. 

Woods  of  uniform  texture,  with  straight,  open  grain  and 
average  rapid  growth,  are,  as  a  rule,  high  in  ultimate  strength 
and  elastic  limit.  Such  woods  are  especially  well  adapted  to 
the  processes  of  artificial  preservation.  The  sameness  of  the 
growth  and  the  uniformity  of  the  cell  structure  make  it 
practicable  to  carry  on  the  preliminary  seasoning  steps 
rapidly,  and  at  a  very  low  temperature.  The  timber  thus 
prepared  thoroughly  absorbs  the  antiseptic  qualities  and 
turns  out  a  material  of  certain  uniformity  and  excellence. 

All  woods  are  more  or  less  adapted  for  the  processes  of 
artificial  preservation,  the  difference  lying  in  the  time  and 


ITS   PREPARATION   AND   USES  17 

methods  required  for  the  several  steps  of  the  process.  The 
more  dense  and  fine-grained  varieties  require  a  longer  time 
than  the  coarser  varieties  for  the  preliminary  seasoning,  and 
for  the  actual  impregnation  with  the  preserving  liquid.  The 
hardest  and  most  dense  woods  may  be  thoroughly  impreg- 
nated with  the  antiseptic,  however. 

The  Dead  Oil  of  Coal  Tar  used  for  preserving  timber  in 
the  process  known  as  "  Creosoting,"  is  a  product  of  the  dis- 
tillation of  coal  tar,  a  byproduct  from  the  manufacture  of 
illuminating  gas.  In  reference  to  their  volatility,  the  dis- 
tillates of  coal  tar  arrange  themselves  into  three  groups  : 
The  Naphthas,  Dead  Oil  of  Coal  Tar,  and  Pitch.  The  first 
group  being  very  volatile,  at  ordinary  temperatures,  and  con- 
taining no  substances  of  an  antiseptic  nature,  have  no  value 
for  creosoting  purposes.  The  third,  being  composed  of  sub- 
stances which,  while  of  strong  antiseptic  qualities,  and  quite 
insoluble  and  nonvolatile  at  normal  temperature,  are,  never- 
theless, unavailable  on  account  of  the  high  temperatures 
necessary  for  their  manipulation.  The  second  group  includes 
all  those  constituents  of  coal  tar  which  are  essential  for 
the  preservation  of  timber,  by  the  Creosoting  or  Dead  Oil  of 
Coal  Tar  Process.  Generally  speaking,  these  substances  are 
either  "acids"  or  "bases,"  and  belong  to  the  Hydrocarbon 
Compounds,  or  to  the  Nitrogenized  Compounds  of  the  coal 
tar  derivatives. 

The  table  on  page  19  lists  those  constituents  of  Dead  Oil  of 
Coal  Tar  which  are  known  to  have  a  more  or  less  important 
part  in  the  process. 


ITS   PREPARATION   AND   USES 


19 


TABLE  No.  1. 

DEAD  OIL  OF  COAL  TAR  COMPOUNDS. 

USED  FOB  THE  PRESERVATION  OF  TIMBER. 


Name. 

Symbol. 

Fuses. 

Vaporizes. 

HYDROCARBON  COMPOUNDS, 
ACIDS. 

Naphthalene  

OOOOOO  OOOOOOO  OOOOOOOOOOO 

IB 

^1  0 
*•  I  0 

LI  o 

ill 

^12 

Me 
AIO 
Mo 

^18 

\\  N 

79° 
Liquid. 

32.5° 
Liquid. 

106° 
63° 
100° 
109° 
99° 

Liquid. 

Liquid. 
Liquid. 

111° 

218° 
200° 
242° 
242° 
262° 
190° 
305° 
290° 
340° 
360°  =b 
350° 

116.7° 
135° 
152° 
170° 
211° 
230° 
251° 

240° 
236° 
243° 
252° 
.     274° 
360°± 

Di-hyd  .    . 
a,  Methyl  . 
"             b,      " 
Di,     " 
Tetrahyd  . 
Anthracene.    Dihyd    .    . 
Hexahyd  . 
Phenanthrene   

Fluoranthrene  

Retene     

NlTROGENIZED  COMPOUNDS, 
BASES. 

Pyridine      

Picoline 

Lutidine  • 

Collidine 

Rubidine     
Viridine      ... 

QUINOLINE  SERIES. 
Leucoline 

Isquinoline  
Quinaldine  ....    ... 

Cryptidine 

20  CREOSOTED   TIMBER 

In  addition  to  the  substances  listed  in  the  preceding  table 
are  a  number  of  compounds  of  strong  antiseptic  qualities 
which  but  for  their  solubility  or  volatility  would  be  of 
great  value.  Of  these  the  Phenol  (known  commercially 
as  Carbolic  Acid),  and  the  Cresols  are  especially  worthy  of 
note.  To  them  was  ascribed  for  a  long  time  the  merit  of 
Dead  Oil  of  Coal  Tar  as  a  preservative  of  vegetable  fibre, 
the  theory  being  that  the  exhibition  of  these  substances, 
having  caused  the  coagulation  of  the  albuminoids  of  the 
tissues,  rendered  them  indestructible.  It  is  a  cardinal  prin- 
ciple that  a  timber  preservative  must  inherently  possess  the 
properties  that  it  is  to  impart  to  the  tissue  that  it  is  intended 
to  preserve.  It  is  a  matter  of  common  knowledge  that  the 
phenols  and  cresols  are  quite  volatile  at  normal  temperature 
and  that  they,  as  well  as  their  compounds,  are  very  unstable. 
The  success  of  the  Dead  Oil  of  Coal  Tar  Process  owes  its 
virtue  to  the  presence  of  insoluble  non-volatile  substances 
indifferent  to  the  attacks  of  oxidation  or  putrefaction,  under 
the  conditions  to  which  its  product  is  normally  exposed. 
Of  these  substances,  by  far  the  most  abundant  are  the  Naph- 
thalene compounds  (see  Table  1),  which  occur  in  commercial 
dead  oil  of  coal  tar  to  the  extent  of  from  thirty  to  sixty  per 
cent,  by  weight.  Naphthalene  proper,  the  most  abundant 
of  the  series,  is  in  its  pure  state  a  white  substance  in  the 
form  of  closely  adhering  rhomboidal  crystals.  It  fuses 
at  79°  C.  and  vaporizes  at  212-220.  Its  specific  gravity  is 
0.9778  at  its  boiling  point.  It  is  insoluble  in  cold  water;  spar- 
ingly so  in  hot ;  it  is  slightly  volatile  at  normal  temperatures. 
Commercial  Naphthalene  has  a  pungent  odor  and  acrid  taste, 
due  to  the  presence  of  a  small  portion  of  Leucoline,  a  sub- 
stance belonging  to  the  Nitrogenized  derivatives  of  the  coal 
tar  series.  Naphthalene  Dihydride  and  Naphthalene  Tetra- 
hydride  have  more  of  the  characteristics  of  Naphthalene, 
the  difference  being  a  higher  vaporizing  point  and  a  much 
lower  fusing  point,  with  less  volatility,  at  normal  tempera- 
tures. 

Associated  with  the  above  are  the  compounds  of  the 
Methyl  Naphthalene  series  a  and  b,  which  are  liquid  at 


ITS  PREPARATION  AND   USES  21 

ordinary  temperatures,  strongly  antiseptic,  insoluble  in  water 
and  non- volatile  at  usual  temperatures.  The  inertness  of 
the  compounds  of  the  Naphthalene  series,  under  such  con- 
ditions as  obtain  in  the  usual  range  of  timber  construction  ; 
the  comparatively  low  temperatures  required  for  their  man- 
ipulation, their  marked  physical  advantages,  coupled  with 
the  fact  that  they  form  a  very  considerable  percentage  of 
commercial  Dead  Oil  of  Coal  Tar,  class  them  among  the  most 
useful  and  available  of  all  the  dead  oil  constituents,  for  the 
artificial  preservation  of  organic  tissue.  Anthracene  Dihy- 
dride,  Anthracene  Hexahydride — the  former  fusing  at  106 
and  vaporizing  at  305°  C.  and  the  latter  fusing  at  63 
and  vaporizing  at  :  90°  C.— are  the  next  of  the  Hydro- 
carbons occurring  in  sufficient  quantities  to  be  worthy  of 
mention.  Both  are  insoluble  in  water  and  are  non-volatile 
and  liquid  at  allowable  temperatures.  They  strongly  par- 
take of  the  physical  characteristics  of  the  Naphthalene 
compounds,  are  strongly  toxic  in  the  presence  of  organic 
life,  and  form  an  intimate  mechanical  mixture  with  those 
substances. 

Of  the  nitrogenized  derivatives  of  Coal  Tar,  the  Pyridine 
series  furnishes  several  very  stable  compounds  which  are 
liquid  at  available,  and  insoluble  and  non-volatile  at  normal 
temperatures.  Their  physical  characteristics  are  such  as  to 
admit  of  a  very  close  mechanical  combination  with  the  sub- 
stances of  the  Hydrocarbon  derivatives.  The  Quinoline 
series  includes  the  most  important  of  the  purely  antiseptic 
constituents  of  the  dead  oil  of  coal  tar.  All,  except  the 
Acridine,  are  liquids  of  an  exceedingly  high  boiling  point; 
all  are  nearly,  or  quite,  insoluble  in  water  and  are  non-vola- 
tile, and  all  mix  readily  and  closely  with  the  several  substances , 
heretofore  mentioned.  The  particular  ingredients  above 
described  are  those  only  which,  from  their  known  physical 
and  chemical  properties,  are  recognized  as  having  an  im- 
portant office  in  the  Dead  Oil  of  Coal  Tar  Process.  That 
there  are  other  series  quite  as  valuable  associated  with  them 
is  not  to  be  doubted  ;  the  exceedingly  fertile  field  of  the 
coal  tar  derivatives  not  as  yet  having  been  fully  explored. 


22  CREOSOTED  TIMBER 

The  question  of  the  applicability  of  artificially  preserved 
timber  to  any  specific  use  is,  of  course,  almost  entirely  a 
commercial  one.  Whether  a  larger  first  cost,  in  order  to 
secure  a  longer  life,  is  warranted,  depends  upon  the  condi- 
tions which  obtain  in  each  particular  instance.  Generally 
speaking,  structures  are  intended  for  all  time.  The  selection 
of  a  material,  meeting  all  the  requirements  of  daily  use,  and 
least  affected  by  the  destructive  agencies  to  which  it  is  sub- 
jected, is  the  most  economical,  save  only  that  the  interest 
on  the  first  cost  shall  not  exceed  the  expense  of  periodic 
renewal  with  a  less  durable  and  less  costly  material,  plus 
the  expenditure  due  interference  by  reason  of  such  renewal 
with  the  current  uses  of  the  structure.  Creosoted  timber, 
having  all  the  advantages  of  ease  of  manipulation  and 
adaptability  to  the  endless  variety  of  structural  require- 
ments possessed  by  it  in  its  natural  state  is,  within  the 
range  of  its  applicability,  the  ideal  structural  material.  Its 
first  cost  being  its  only  cost,  the  building  once  erected  is 
finished  so  far  as  material  is  concerned.  For  all  classes  of 
marine  construction  it  is  the  only  material  satisfying  all  the 
conditions  of  durability  and  adaptability.  Absolutely  proof 
against  the  attacks  of  every  species  of  animal  life,  and  wholly 
inert  in  the  presence  of  the  most  active  oxidizing  agencies 
of  sea  water,  it  offers  all  the  ad  vantages  of  a  timber  construc- 
tion without  its  susceptibility  to  the  assaults  of  teredo  and 
limnoria,  and  all  of  the  advantages  of  a  metal  construction 
without  the  high  first  cost  and  the  considerable  fixed  charges 
due  the  maintenance  of  that  class  of  structure.  The  quali- 
ties which  fit  creosoted  timber  for  marine  construction  are 
exactly  those  which  adapt  it  to  every  variety  of  structure 
exposed  to  atmospheric  action,  including  the  most  trying  of 
all  conditions  to  which  wood  is  subjected — the  alternate 
wetting  and  drying  of  the  interior  of  electrical  and  other 
subways. 

Plate  1  represents  a  seawall,  or  bulkhead,  1,800  feet  long, 
ten  feet  high  above  mean  low  water,  protecting  the  rail  ap- 
proach to  one  of  the  largest  tidewater  coaling  stations  in  the 
United  States.  This  construction  is  of  creosoted  sheet-piling 


ITS  PREPARATION   AND  USES 


driven  in  one  row,  four  inches  thick,  supported  at  the  top 
by  two  wharf-logs — a  part  of  the  structure  as  originally 
built.  There  is  no  support  to  the  bottom,  the  slight  depth 
of  water  making  this  unnecessary.  This  bulkhead  was  first 
constructed  of  untreated  white  oak  on  the  same  plan  as  at 
present,  except  that  it  was  supported  at  the  bottom  with  a 
row  of  round  logs,  bolted  through  to  the  bearing  piles 
which  supported  the  superstructure  as  first  erected.  At  the 


Plate  i. 

expiration  of  five  years  the  teredo  had  so  destroyed  the 
sheet-piling  and  the  bottom  support  that  it  was  necessary  to 
rebuild  the  bulkhead.  This  was  done  with  creosoted  sheet- 
piling  ten  years  ago.  At  this  time  the  creosoted  timber  is 
as  good  as  when  first  put  in. 

Plate  2  represents  a  retaining  wall  ten  feet  high  above  low 
water,  composed  of  a  double  row  of  three-inch  sheet  piling, 
the  front  one  of  creosoted  timber  and  the  back  one  of  un- 


24 


CREOSOTED  TIMBER 


treated  wood.  The  sheet  piling  is  supported  at  the  top  by 
a  double  wharf-log  of  untreated  wood  and  at  the  bottom  by  a 
single  piece  of  creosoted  6x8  timber,  the  whole  supported 
by  a  round  creosoted  pile  every  eight  feet,  tied  back  to  an 
untreated  one,  driven  approximately  twelve  feet  behind  the 
bulkhead,  and  covered  by  the  earth  behind.  The  expecta- 
tion that  the  front  row  of  creosoted  sheeting  would  be  able 


to  carry  the  load  by  the  time  that  the  back  one  of  untreated 
timber  had  decayed,  has  been  fully  realized  and  the  struc- 
ture is  a  good  example  of  a  substantial  and  durable  construc- 
tion at  a  minimum  cost. 

Plate  3  represents  an  excellent  type  of  modern  practice  in 
the  construction  of  closed  piers  in  deep  water.  The  bulk- 
head is  made  up  of  two  rows  of  piling,  the  front  one  being 
of  round  creosoted  piles,  driven  in  a  close  row,  and  sup- 


ITS   PREPARATION   AND   USES 


25 


ported  at  the  top  by  two  longitudinals,  between  which  are 
dovetailed  the  tie-logs  extending  across  the  pier.  Back  of 
this  is  driven  a  sheet-pile  bulkhead  consisting  of  two  rows 
of  three-inch  plank,  the  front  row  of  creosoted,  and  the  back 


row  of  untreated  timber.  This  bulkhead  is  supported  at 
low  water  by  a  single  longitudinal  of  creosoted  6x8  timber 
secured  to  the  round  piles  forming  the  front  row.  For  rea- 


26  CREOSOTED   TIMBER 

sons  of  immediate  economy  the  apron  surrounding  this 
pier  was  constructed  of  charred  cypress  piles.  At  the  end 
of  seven  years  it  became  necessary  to  rebuild  it  on  account 
of  the  failure  of  the  piling,  which  was  so  destroyed  by  the 
teredo  as  to  be  unfit  for  further  use. 


Plate  4  represents  cross-sections  of  the  creosoted  and 
charred  cypress  piles  used  in  the  construction  of  the  pier  a 
portion  of  which  is  shown  in  Plate  3.  These  specimens  are 


Plate  6. 

taken  from  the  materials  used  in  the  original  construction 
and  very  well  represent  the  status  of  the  two  classes  of 
material  at  the  expiration  of  seven  years'  exposure  to  the 
action  of  the_teredo  in  Norfolk  harbor. 


ITS   PREPARATION   AND   USES 


27 


Plate  5  represents  another  example  of  the  futility  of 
charring  timber  for  its  protection  against  marine  insects. 
This  stick  is  from  a  charred  cypress  pile — a  part  of  the  pier 
before  mentioned.  The  extraordinarily  bad  condition  is 
probably  due  to  the  fact  that  more  or  less  of  the  char  was 
torn  off  in  the  work  of  driving  through  the  unavoidable 


I  late  8. 


28 


CREOSOTED    TIMBER 


scraping  of  the  sling  chains,  handsticks,  etc.,  and  the  rubbing 
against  the  "  ways  "  of  the  piledriver. 

Plates  6  and  7  represent  a  sheet-pile  bulkhead,  forming 


a  retaining  wall  and  lumber  wharf  along  a  canal.  The  con- 
struction is  simple,  consisting  of  a  single  row  of  creosoted 
plank  four  inches  thick,  supported  at  the  top  by  a  longi- 


ITS   PREPARATION   AND  USES 


29 


P  OWL  ENGINEE 


tadinal  carried  on  creosoted  round  piles  in  front  of  the 
sheet  piling,  and  spaced  eight  feet  apart.  The  entire  struc- 
ture is  tied  to  an  anchor-log,  located  well  back  in  the  bank, 
by  logs  dovetailed  into  the  longitudinal  at  suitable  intervals. 


Plate  11.— Sections  of  Underground  Creosoted  Conduits. 


30 


CREOSOTED   TIMBER 


While  this  bulkhead  has  been  entirely  satisfactory,  it  is 
open  to  criticism,  in  that  the  top  longitudinal  might  have 
been  a  creosoted  6x6,  instead  of  an  untreated  12x12,  the 


Plate  12.— Underground  Creosoted  Conduits  in  Use. 

former  costing  but  three-fourths  as  much  as  the  latter,  and 
lasting  four  times  as  long.  The  wooden  ties  might  have 
been  of  iron  at  a  less  cost  and  much  greater  life. 


ITS   PREPARATION   AND   USES  31 

Plate  8  represents  non-creosoted  white  oak  cross-ties 
at  the  expiration  of  eight  years'  service  ;  while  Plate  9  de- 
lineates the  only  usage  to  which  they  were  put. 

Plate  10  shows  a  creosoted  terminal  or  distributing  pole,  for 
collecting  and  conveying  to  the  subway  the  various  electrical 
conductors  of  a  "district."  Such  poles,  either  rectangular 
or  octagon,  are  rapidly  coming  into  favor  as  the  cheapest 
and  in  every  way  the  most  desirable  for  this  purpose. 

Plate  12  shows  a  subway  of  creosoted  wood  tubing.  It 
is  an  inexpensive  construction  and  one  that  is  permanent, 
easily  laid,  and  is  less  liable  to  injury  from  settlement  of 
the  surrounding  earth  than  any  form  of  masonry  or  tiled 
conduit. 

Plate  11  presents  a  detail  of  the  tubing.  In  this  connec- 
tion the  following  letter  may  be  of  interest: 

NORFOLK  CREOSOTING  CO., 
Norfolk,  Va. 

Gentlemen:—  Replying  to  your  inquiry  regarding  my  experience  with 
creosoted  wooden  conduits  in  the  telephone  service,  I  beg  to  say  that  this 
company,  The  New  York  and  New  Jersey  Telephone  Company,  has  in  use 
several  million  of  feet  of  wooden  duct  treated  with  twelve  pounds  of  dead 
oil  of  coal  tar  per  cubic  foot  by  the  vacuum  process  at  your  works  at 
Norfolk,  Va. 

The  first  creosoted  duct  conduit  used  by  this  company  was  laid  in 
Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  in  November,  1884,  fifteen  years  ago,  and  upon  recent  ex- 
amination the  material  showed  no  evidence  whatever  of  any  deterioration 
in  the  fibre  of  the  wood. 

Creosoted  conduits  referred  to  have  been  placed  in  the  various  soils  en- 
countered throughout  the  territory  of  this  company,  with  entirely  satis- 
factory results.  Very  truly  yours, 

J.  C.  REILLY, 

General  Superintendent. 

The  plates  on  page  32  represent  a  creosoted  wood-paving 
block  after  eighteen  years'  service,  and  a  first-class  granite 
block  under  the  same  volume  of  traffic,  after  nine  years' 
use. 


Creosoted  Wood  compared  with  Granite  Paving  Block. 


ITS   PREPARATION   AND   USES  33 

CREOSOTED    TIMBER. 

THE  NORFOLK  CREOSOTING  COMPANY'S  METHOD  OF  PRESERV- 
ING Woob  FROM  THE  MOLLUSKS  AND  THE  ELEMENTS. 

The  preservation  of  timber  by  the  Dead  Oil  of  Coal  Tar 
process,  as  carried  on  by  all  well-equipped  creosoting  plants, 
consists  of  two  distinct  operations— the  preparation  of  the 
wood,  and  its  impregnation  with  the  preservative.  The 
preparation  of  the  wood  necessary  for  the  proper  reception 
of  the  preserving  substances  is  the  removal  of  all  those  por- 
tions of  the  tissue  which  are  subject  to  fermentative  action. 
This  consists  of  the  extraction  of  the  liquids  and  semi-liquids 
occupying  the  interfibrous  spaces,  and  constituting  the  very 
immature  portions  of  the  wood,  without  softening  the  cement 
binding  of  the  fitaailae^^r  bundles  of  cellulose  tissue,  form- 
ing the  solid  or  fully  matured  part.  Upon  the  successful 
accomplishment  of  this  entirely  depends  the  value  of  arti- 
ficially preserved  wood  for  structural  purposes.  If  this  step 
of  the  operation  is  conducted  at  too  low  a  temperature,  or 
for  too  short  a  time,  the  sap  or  liquid  part  nearest  the  sur- 
face will  only  be  extracted,  the  consequence  of  which  will 
be  an  insufficient  space  for  receiving  the  preservative.  If, 
on  the  other  hand,  the  operation  is  carried  on  at  too  high  a 
temperature,  or  for  too  long  a  time,  the  resinous  portion  of 
the  bundles  of  fibrillse  will  be  softened  and  the  wood  lose 
its  elasticity  in  just  the  proportion  that  the  coherence  of 
the  fibrillse  is  lessened.  The  temperature  should  never  be 
less  than  100°  C.  or  exceeding  130°  C.  Of  the  two  possible 
methods  for  the  removal  of  the  undesirable  portions  of  the 
timber,  exposure  to  currents  of  dry  air,  and  steaming 
under  pressure  with  an  after  drying  in  a  vacuum,  the  latter 
is  now  the  universal  practice.  While  the  first-named  plan 
may  seem  the  more  rational,  and  the  one  least  likely  to 
modify  injuriously  the  physical  structure,  such  is  not  the 
case.  Under  proper  manipulation,  a  more  thorough  desic- 
cation, without  harmful  change  of  the  organic  structure,  can 
be  accomplished  in  twelve  hours  less  by  the  latter  process, 
than  is  ever  possible  with  air  drying  which,  under  the  most 


. 

II 


a  £F 
K  .5 

o  -e 


ITS    PREPARATION   AND   USES  35 

favorable  circumstances,  is  a  long-drawn-out  operation,  and 
cannot  do  more  than  extract  the  water  from  that  portion  of 
the  sap  which  has  not  yet  reached  the  semi-solid  stage,  thus 
leaving  in  the  tissues  of  the  wood  a  very  considerable 
amount  of  resinous  matter  which  occupies  space  that  should 
be  ready  to  receive  the  creosote  oil.  The  consequence  of 
this  is  a  failure  of  the  oil  to  reach  many  of  the  interfibrous 
passages,  which  are  either  left  empty  or  are  filled  with  the 
gelatinous  part  of  the  half-matured  growth  cells  in  which 
are  to  be  found  the  conditions  that  make  putrefaction  possi- 
ble. ( In  order  to  remove  the  sap  from  wood,  it  is  first  neces- 
sary to  vaporize  it  and  then  to  bring  about  such  external 
circumstances  which  shall  allow  outflow  of  all  gaseous  mat- 
ter from  the  interior  of  the  wood.  In  order  to  vaporize  the 
sap  it  is  necessary  to  break  down  the  walls  of  the  cells  con- 
taining the  liquid  and  semi-liquid  substances.  This  is 
readily  accomplished  through  the  agency  of  heat  applied 
through  the  medium  of  a  moist  steam  bath,  at  such  a  pres- 
sure as  to  keep  the  temperature  of  the  wood,  and  its  sur- 
rounding atmosphere,  somewhat  above  the  boiling  point  of 
the  sap.  The  maintenance  of  this  condition  for  a  few  hours 
is  found  to  be  quite  sufficient  to  break  down  the  sap-cell 
tissue  and  to  vaporize  all  those  constituents  that  it  is  desir- 
able to  withdraw.]  This  point  having  been  reached,  the 
-steam  bath  is  discontinued -j-ftneHthe  temperature  being 
maintained  at,  or  slightly  above,  the  vaporizing  point  of  the 
sap,  the  pressure  of  the  atmosphere  surrounding  the  wood 
within  the  chamber  is  reduced  below  that  of  the  interior  of 
the  wood.  The  result  of  this  condition  is  an  outflow-  of 
vapor  and  air,  continuing  until  equilibrium  is  restored. 
This  equilibrium  is  prevented  by  the  use  of  an  exhaust 
pump  until  the  absence  of  aqueous  vapor  in  the  discharge 
from  the  pump  indicates  the  completion  of  the  operation. 
At  this  stage  the  wood  tissue  is  in  a  state  very  like  that  of  a 
sponge  cleared  of  hot  water  ;  every  pore  is  gaping  open  and 
ready  to  receive  the  oil. 

In  the  practice  of  the  Norfolk  Creosoting  Company  the 
most  carefully  dried  lumber  is  steamed  and  subjected  to  the 


ITS   PREPARATION   AND   USES  37 

action  of  the  heated  "  vacuum  "  in  order  that  there  may  be 
nad  that  thorough  and  uniform  penetration  of  the  preserv- 
ing liquid  that  is  essential  to  the  highest  efficiency  of  the 
product.  The  timber  having  been  thus  prepared  the  creo- 
sote oil  is  admitted  to  the  chamber,  which  is  still  kept  under 
the  influence  of  the  vacuum  pump,  at  a  temperature  some- 
what above  the  boiling  point  of  the  sap,  at  the  pressure  then 
existing  in  the  chamber.  As  the  hot  oil  envelops  the  wood 
and  enters  the  interfibrous  spaces,  the  aqueous  vapor  yet 
remaining  in  the  wood,  by  reason  of  its  less  specific  gravity, 
rises  to  the  top  of  the  containing  chamber  and  is  withdrawn 
by  the  pump.  By  the  time  that  the  chamber  is  entirely 
filled  with  oil,  all  the  remaining  moisture  has  escaped.  The 
exhaust  pump  is  stopped  and,  in  order  to  facilitate  the 
absorption  of  the  oil  by  the  wood,  a  pressure  pump  is  set 
to  work  supplying  oil  to  the  chamber  at  such  pressure 
as  maybe  desired.  This  operation  is  continued  until  the 
requisite  amount  of  oil  has  been  put  into  the  timber.  .The 
chamber  is  then  opened  and  the  timber  withdrawn.  The 
apparatus  is  then  ready  for  further  use. 

The  successful  conduct  of  the  operation  above  outlined 
exacts  the  most  careful  attention  and  skillful  management, 
supplemented  by  adequate  and  suitable  appliances.  The 
wide  divergence  in  the  characteristics  of  timber  ;  the  vary- 
ing amounts  of  sap,  due  to  the  lapse  of  time  since,  and  the 
season  in  which  the  tree  was  felled  ;  its  possible  subsequent 
immersion  in  water  for  a  longer  or  shorter  time  ;  the  char- 
acter of  the  soil  and  the  conditions  under  which  the  tree 
grew,  whether  in  a  dense  forest  or  a  comparatively  open 
country,  whether  it  is  of  a  rapid  even  growth,  or  a  slow  in- 
termittent one,  are  all  factors  contributing  to  a  more  or  less 
perfect  product.  To  the  experienced  operator  these  condi- 
tions indicate,  in  each  case,  the  proper  course  to  be  pursued. 
Failure  to  observe  and  to  take  them  into  consideration  is  to 
invite  indifferent,  uncertain  and  in  the  end  unsatisfactory 
results.  Of  equal  importance  is  a  proper  understanding  of 
the  circumstances  under  which  the  finished  product  is  to  be 
used.  Timber  for  piers,  wharves  and  other  structures  in 


ITS   PREPARATION   AND   USES 


39 


tropical  waters  demand  processes  and  degrees  of  thorough- 
ness of  treatment  that  are  unnecessay  in  the  harbors  of 
more  temperate  climates,  which  are,  in  turn,  more  exacting 
than  land  and  fresh- water  construction. 

It  is  as  true  as  it  is  unfortunate,  that,  in  the  past— per- 
haps at  present— much  creosoted  work  has  fallen  far  below 


NORFOLK  CREOSOTING  COMPANY'S  CYLINDER  CARS,  laden  with  Cross 
Anns  for  American  Telegraph  &  Telephone  Company. 

the  reasonable  expectation  of  the  purchaser  and  user.  As 
creosoting  is  neither  a  secret  or  patented  process,  nor  are  its 
operations  complex,  a  close  and  systematic  inspection  of  ma- 
terials used  at  the  place  of  manufacture  is  all  that  is  necessary 
for  the  buyer,  and  at  the  time  that  the  creosoting  is  in  pro- 
gress. The  cost  of  a  competent  intelligent  inspection  is  a 


ITS   PREPARATION   AND  USES  4.1 

justifiable  and  wise  Expenditure,  and  such  oversight  is  wel- 
comed by  the  Norfolk  Creosoting  Company.  The  processes 
of  the  treatment  of  timber  with  dead  oil  of  coal  tar  having 
been  an  established  success  for  more  than  fifty  years,  it 
follows  that  the  only  advantages  possessed  by  one  firm  over 
another  are  to  be  set  down  to  either  superiority  of  ap- 
pliances and  manipulation,  fortunate  location,  and  business 
sagacity,  or  a  combination  of  two  or  more  of  these  circum- 
stances, not  one  of  which  can  be  monopolized  for  any  great 
length  of  time  or  to  any  marked  degree.  The  rules  which 
apply  to  the  production  of  all  staples  hold  equally  to  the 
preservation  of  wood,  and  the  proposition  to  supply  a  prop- 
erly creosoted  timber  at  a  price  much  below  the  market 
carries  with  it  the  burden  of  an  explanation  if  it  would 
escape  the  reasonable  suspicion  of  being  other  than  it  is 
represented  to  be. 

The  engineers  of  the  Norfolk  Creosoting  Company  have 
acquired,  through  personal  experience,  the  information  ap- 
pearing in  the  preceding  pages,  consequently  the  company 
feels  itself  warranted  instating  that  its  product  cannot  be 
excelled  in  quality  and  adaptability  for  all  the  purposes  to 
which  creosoted  timber  is  suited.  Its  plant  is  modern  in 
every  particular,  with  facilities  adapted  to  all  requirements, 
and  a  daily  capacity  of  50,000  feet  B.  M.  Each  chamber  is 
provided  with  coils  for  heating,  through  the  agency  of  super- 
heated steam,  to  any  desired  temperature  ;  while  for  charg- 
ing and  discharging  them  there  are  suitably  located  power- 
operated  derricks,  by  means  of  which  material  is  handled 
with  the  greatest  possible  dispatch.  Proper  tanks  and  mix- 
ing vats  are  had  for  storing  and  grading  oil,  together  with  all 
the  appliances  convenient  and  necessary  for  its  expeditious 
manipulation  and  movement,  while  a  well  equipped  labora- 
tory is  provided  by  the  company  for  the  use  of  inspectors. 

An  ample  battery  of  boilers  supplies  steam  for  power  and 
for  heating  purposes,  and  adequate  fire  protection  is  afforded, 
in  accordance  with  the  standard  underwriters'  requirements. 
Through  its  excellent  rail  and  water  transportation  facilities, 
the  company  has  direct  access  to  the  limitless  pine  forests  of 


42  CREOSOTED   TIMBER 

the  South,  the  Atlantic  seaboard,  and  at  the  same  time  it  is 
within  easy  range  of  the  oil  markets  of  the  world. 

Its  direct  connection  with  the  seven  important  railway 
systems  terminating  at  Norfolk,  and  its  location  immediately 
on  the  deep  waters  of  Norfolk  harbor,  afford  it  the  best  of 
advantages  for  shipment  to  any  desired  territory. 

CREOSOTED    ROUND   PILING. 

The  table  on  the  following  page  gives  the  most  econom- 
ical sizes  for  piling  and  poles  that  can  be  cut  from  whole 
trees. 

If  creosoted  piling  is  dapped  through,  or  is  cut  off  at  the 
top,  so  as  to  expose  the  untreated  interior,  it  is  necessary  to 
protect  the  parts  so  exposed  with  several  coats  of  creosote 
oil,  applied  hot ;  or,  if  more  convenient,  a  cement  of  equal 
parts  of  coal  tar  and  air-slaked  lime,  applied  hot,  will  answer 
the  same  end. 

For  all  harbors  of  the  North  Atlantic  Coast,  including  those 
of  Chesapeake  Bay  and  its  tributaries,  twelve  pounds  of  dead 
oil  of  coal  tar  are  quite  sufficient.  For  the  harbors  of  the 
South  Atlantic  and  Gulf,  and  the  ports  of  the  Caribbean  Sea, 
fifteen  to  twenty-four  pounds  per  cubic  foot,  depending  upon 
the  exact  location  and  the  conditions  governing  the  particular 
case,  are  required. 


NEWPORT  NEWS,  VA.,  November  11,  1899. 
NORFOLK  CREOSOTING  COMPANY,  Norfolk,  Va. 

Gentlemen: — During  the  past  twelve  years  I  have  had  occasion  to  use 
large  quantities  of  creosoted  material,  both  piles  and  lumber,  and  I  take 
pleasure  in  saying  that  all  of  such  material  that  has  been  prepared  under 
the  supervision  of  Mr.  Edmund  Christian,  General  Manager,  has  been 
found  to  be  perfectly  satisfactory. 

I  may  add  that  I  have  such  confidence  in  Mr.  Christian's  skill  and  judg- 
ment as  an  engineer,  and  his  integrity  as  a  business  man,  that  I  do  not  now 
consider  it  necessary  to  put  an  inspector  at  his  works. 

W.  A.  POST,  General  Superintendent, 
Newport  News  Shipbuilding  and  Dry  Dock  Company. 


ITS   PREPARATION   AND   USES 


43 


CBEOSOTED  ROUND  PILING. 

USUAL  LENGTHS,  SIZES  AND  SHIPPING  WEIGHTS. 


^* 

f! 

20 

Diam.  In. 

Total 
Cu.  Ft. 

Total  Wt.    Diam.  In. 

Total 
Ou.  Ft. 

Total  Wt. 

Top. 
6 

Suit. 
9 

n 

zo 

Top. 

Butt. 

n 

20 

721 

6.2 

372 

409 

9 

11 

10.92 

655 

20 

7 

10 

7.9 

470 

521 

10 

12 

12.92 

775 

853 

25 

6 

9 

7.8 

464 

515 

10 

12 

16.16 

970 

1066 

25   9 

11 

13.56 

813 

895 

12 

14 

23.02 

1381 

1519 

30 

8 

11 

14.88 

893 

982 

12 

14 

27.64 

1658 

1824 

35 

9 

12 

21.16 

1270 

1396 

13 

16 

39.76 

2385 

2624 

40 

6 

12 

18.30 

1098 

1208 

7 

13 

22.45 

2007 

1482 

40 

8 

14 

27.66 

1060 

1825 

10 

15 

34.54 

2072 

2280 

45 

7 

14 

28.05 

1683 

1851 

9 

16 

39.75 

2385 

2624 

45' 

9 

15 

36.11 

2166 

2383 

12 

18 

56.01 

3360 

3697 

50 

6 

13 

25.74 

1544 

1649 

9 

16 

44.36 

2661 

2927 

50 

6 

14 

28.77 

1726 

1999 

10 

16 

47.06 

2824 

3106 

50 

7 

15 

34.50 

2070 

2277 

10 

18 

54.94 

3296 

3626 

55 

8 

14 

38.03 

2282 

2510 

8 

16 

44.82 

2689 

2958 

55 

9 

15 

44.12 

2647 

2912 

9 

18 

56.82 

3409 

3750 

60 

6 

15 

38.36 

2301 

2532 

8 

17 

53.34 

3200 

3520 

60 

7 

15 

41.42 

2485 

2734 

9 

17 

57.14 

3428 

3771 

65 

6 

16 

45.83 

2750 

3025 

8 

17 

57.76 

3465 

3812 

65 

7 

16 

49.32 

2960 

3255 

9 

18 

67.14 

4028 

4431 

70 

6 

18 

59.58 

3575 

3932 

6 

20 

70.83 

4250 

4675 

70 

6 

19 

68.45 

4107 

4518 

7 

22 

87.33 

5240 

5764 

75 

6 

22 

89.90 

5394 

5933 

7 

24 

108.12 

6487 

7136 

75 

7 

22 

93.56 

5614 

6175 

8 

24 

113.47 

6708 

7489 

80 

6 

26 

126.20 

7572 

8329 

7 

26 

131.88 

7913 

8704 

85 

6 

26 

134.11 

8047 

8851 

7 

26 

140.15 

8409 

9250 

44 


CREOSOTED   TIMBER 


CREOSOTED  POLES  FOR  ELECTRIC  KAIL- 
WAYS,  TELEPHONES  AND  TELE- 
GRAPH LINES. 


Least  Diam. 

Weight  per  Cub 

c  Feet. 

Shape. 

Length. 



Total 
Cubic  Ft. 

Top. 

Butt. 

10 

12 

15 

Circular  .  . 

25 

5 

10 

7.85 

438 

450 

475 

30 

5 

12 

12.48 

693 

712 

756 

35 

6 

13 

18.00  !   999 

1034 

1089 

40 

7  1  14 

24.93 

1383 

1433 

1509 

45 

7 

14 

28.05 

1557 

1611 

1648 

50 

8 

15 

37.15 

2061 

2133 

2249 

55 

8 

16 

44.78 

2485 

2573 

2711 

60 

8 

16 

48.86 

2711 

2806 

2958 

65 

8 

17 

56.85 

3155 

3265 

3442 

70 

9 

18 

71.02 

3941 

4079 

4300 

75 

9 

18 

81.22 

4507 

4666 

4916 

80 

9 

19 

89.09 

4944 

5117 

5394 

Octagon  .  . 

25 

5 

10 

6.99 

388 

415 

420 

30 

5 

12 

11.29 

626 

648 

684 

35 

6 

12 

14.41 

800 

828 

872 

40 

6 

14 

20.62 

1144 

1184 

1247 

45 

7 

14 

25.14 

1395 

1444 

1522 

50 

7 

15 

30.95 

1717 

1777 

1873 

55 

8 

15 

36.78 

2041 

2113 

2227 

60 

8 

16 

43.84 

2433 

2518 

2654 

65 

8 

17 

51.98 

2884 

2986 

3147 

70 

8 

17 

55.99 

3107 

3291 

3390 

75 

8 

18 

65.27 

3623 

3749 

3952 

80 

8 

18 

69.60 

3862 

3998 

4215 

Square  .  . 

25 

4 

9 

7.69 

426 

442 

465 

30 

4 

9 

10.04 

557 

576 

608 

35 

5 

11 

16.26 

902 

934 

984 

40 

6 

12 

23.20 

1287 

1332 

1404 

45 

6 

12 

26.25 

1456 

1506 

1589 

50 

6 

13 

32.74 

1816 

1880 

1982 

55 

7 

14 

43.66 

2423 

2507 

2643 

60 

7 

14 

47.63 

2643 

2735 

2883 

65 

7 

15 

55.42 

2870 

2970 

3131 

70 

7 

15 

61.40 

3407 

3526 

3717 

75 

7 

16 

72.17 

4005 

4145 

4369 

80 

7 

16 

76.96 

4271 

4421 

4768 

NOTE. — Lengths  are  in  feet;  other  dimensions  are  in  inches. 
Weights  are  for  treatments  of  10,  12  and  15  pounds  of  oil  re- 
spectively. 


ITS    PREPARATION   AND   USES 


45 


CREOSOTED  CROSS-ARMS  FOR  AERIAL 
ELECTRICAL  CONDUCTORS. 


ll 

1  1     Lenf> 

i    *« 
/A.           Size.        •  |3 

Cubic 
Foot. 

Weight  in  Pounds  of  Oil  per 
Cubic  Foot. 

10 

n 

15 

1        2!-Q 

O7       3^4  x  4*4        2 

0.182 

10.1 

10.5 

11. 

2        4'-C 

0"        "         "         4 

0.364 

20.3 

21.1 

22. 

3        6'-00''        "         "         6 

0.538 

30.0 

31.2 

32.6 

4        8'-C 

0"        »         «    \     8 

0.728 

40.6 

42.2 

44.1 

5       10'-00V    l    "         "        10        0.910         50.6         52.7 

55.1 

6       12'-007        "         "        12         1.092        60.8         63.3 

66.1 

7         2'-7'         3      x4      I      2 

0.214         11.7         12.4 

12.7 

8         5'-] 

14         4 

0.464         22.7         26.9 

24.7 

9    \    7-7"          "         "6s    0.635        35.4    ;    36.8 

37.4 

10    j  lO'-l"          "         "         8         0.847         47.3        49.1 

49.7 

11       12'  -1"        •"         "10         1.054         58.9 

61.1 

61.8 

For  cross-arms  of  any  dimension  and  specification,  a 
treatment  of  12  pounds  of  oil  per  cubic  foot  is  recom- 
mended. 


46 


CREOSOTED   TIMBER 


CREOSOTED  WOOD  CONDUITS  FOR  UNDER- 
GROUND ELECTRICAL,  CONDUCTORS. 


IN 

ii 

^ 

Outside 
Dimension, 

Net 
Length. 

Spigot 
Length. 

Weight  per  Lineal  Ft. 
15  Ibs.  Oil  per  Cu.  Ft. 

i 

IV 

Square  3"      x  3'' 

8'  -00" 

IV 

3.0  Ibs. 

2 

2'' 

"      3V  *  3V 

3.5     " 

3 

2V 

"      4"      x  4" 

" 

4.3    " 

4 

3'' 

"      4V*  4V 

5.2    " 

5 

3V 

"      5"      x5" 

6.4     " 

All  conduit  is  worked  to  exact  outside  dimension,  and 
then  bored  and  reamed.  The  joints  are  so  made  as  to  allow 
it  to  "build"  in  the  trench  without  shimming  or  blocking. 
The  completed  piece  is  then  creosoted. 

Creosoted  wood  tubing  is  superior  to  all  other  materials 
for  underground  electrical  conduits  in  that  it  is  as  durable 
as  tiling  or  masonry,  and  has  a  much  smoother  and  more 
uniform  interior  than  either,  presenting  no  sharp  corners 
to  injure  the  cable  as  it  is  being  drawn  through. 

The  dead  oil  of  coal  tar  contains  no  substance  which  is 
in  any  way  injurious  to  the  cable  or  its  covering. 

It  is  easily  entered  and  resealed  between  manholes. 

Its  extreme  lightness  makes  any  foundation,  beyond  a 
single  thickness  of  plank,  unnecessary,  even  in  the  softest 
earth.  This  fact,  together  with  the  narrowness  of  the  trench 
and  the  length  of  the  pieces,  reduces  the  construction  charges 
30%  below  that  of  a  tile  or  masonry  conduit  of  like  capacity, 
and  make?  it  possible  to  work  advantageously  a  much  larger 
force  than  would  be  otherwise  possible.  Special  conduit 
made  and  treated  to  specification  by  the  Norfolk  Creosoting 
Company. 


ITS   PREPARATION   AND   USES 


47 


CREOSOTED  CROSS-TIES  FOB  STEAM  AND 
ELECTRIC  RAILWAYS. 


Dimensions. 

Feet  B.  M. 

Feet,  Cubic. 

Weight. 

10  Ibs.  Oil. 

n  Ibs.  Oil. 

4x6-5 

10. 

0.833 

45 

48 

4x6-6 

12. 

1.000                  55 

58 

5x6-5 

12.5 

1.041      • 

-~SZ  

__ii  60  

5x6-6 

15. 

1.250 

69 

5x6-7 

17.5 

mil 

EV^\[ 

6x8-6 

24. 

2.000 

n  1$  f 

'l!6  ^ 

6x8-7 

28. 

2.333 

.  m  L 

135 

6x8-  7'  -6" 

30. 

ItWiCll 

1!^  ('• 

'       145 

6x8-8 
6  x    8    8'-  6" 

32. 
34 

f  '2.1566  ^ 

——156- 

154 

7x7-7 

28.5 

2.390 

132 

164 
138 

7x7-8 

32.6               2.716 

149 

157 

7x7-  8'-6" 

34.6 

2.891 

159 

167 

8x8-9 

48. 

4.000                220 

232 

8x    8-10 

53. 

4.416                243 

256 

8x    8-12 

64. 

5.333 

293 

309 

8  x  10-10 

66.6 

5.555 

305 

322 

8  x  10-12 

80.                  6.666                366                404 

8  x  10-14 

93. 

7.750 

426                449 

Weights  are  for  10  and  12  pounds  of  oil,  respectively,  per 
cubic  foot. 

The  Norfolk  Creosoting  Company  sizes  all  ties  to  exact 
dimensions  before  treating,  and  they  are  ready  for  immediate 
use  on  leaving  the  works.  The  company  furnishes  ties 
under  any  specification  and  treatment. 


48  CREOSOTED   TIMBER 

CREOSOTED  BOX  CULVERTS. 

RAILWAY,   STREET  AND   HIGHWAY   USES. 

This  form  of  structure  offers  many  advantages  of  utility 
and  low  first  cost  for  openings  of  three  to  twelve  foot  span. 

They  are  as  durable  as  masonry,  and,  on  account  of  their 
smooth  walls  and  bottom,  offer  much  less  resistance  to  the 
passage  of  water  and  are  less  liable  to  be  obstructed  by  the 
catching  of  brush  and  sticks  against  the  walls  and  bottom. 
Their  lightness  renders  a  much  less  expensive  foundation 
necessary,  and  their  imperviousness  makes  them  proof 
against  damage  from  frost;  while  their  elastic  character  ex- 
empts them  from  the  results  of  vibration,  due  to  passing 
trains,  so  frequently  disastrous  to  masonry  structures. 

All  portions  of  these  culverts  are  securely  fastened;  and, 
when  erection  is  complete,  the  entire  structure  is  practically 
one  piece  ;  so  that  pavements  do  not  cut  out,  nor  walls  fall 
in,  under  the  action  of  flood-water.  Such  a  culvert,  once 
erected,  is  charged  out  with  the  assurance  that  there  will 
be  no  annual  maintenance  estimates  for  pointing  up  cracks 
or  painting  iron  work. 

Culverts  of  any  span,  up  to  fourteen  feet,  and  of  any  length, 
are  gotten  out  and  treated  by  the  Norfolk  Creosoting  Com- 
pany in  accordance  with  specifications,  ready  for  use.  Esti- 
mates and  plans  are  submitted  when  desired. 

A  treatment  of  fifteen  pounds  of  oil  per  cubic  foot  is  re- 
commended. 

TRUNK    SEWERS  AND   ARTIFICIAL 
CHANNELS. 

Trunk  sewers  and  artificial  channels  for  streams  are  very 
advantageously  constructed  of  creosoted  timber,  where  the 
cross-section  area  is  four  feet  or  over;  the  channel  being 
either  closed  or  open,  and  the  cross-section  being  either  cir- 
cular or  rectangular,  or  with  vertical  sides  and  V-shaped 
floor.  All  joints  are  water-tight,  and  there  is  absolutely  no 
absorption  of  passing  liquids,  nor  is  the  interior  surface 
broken  or  damaged  by  the  sticks  and  stones  and  other 


ITS  PREPARATION  AND   USES  49 

debris  accompanying  storm  water,  as  is  so  often  the  case 
with  masonry  conduits  having  plastered  interiors.  All  in- 
terior surfaces  are  dressed,  and  so  present  the  least  possible 
resistance  to  the  flow  of  water.  In  open  channels  the  dif- 
ference is  30  per  cent,  in  its  favor,  as  compared  with  the 
smoothest  of  cement-plastered  walls.  The  comparatively 
thin  walls  reduce  the  excavation  on  their  account  50  per 
cent.,  while  the  rapidity  with  which  the  erection  can  be  car- 
ried on  reduces  the  risk  and  expense  attendant  upon  the 
trenching.  Except  in  very  bad  ground,  no  foundation  is 
needed,  while  in  swampy  places  the  quantity  of  timber 
needed  for  the  foundation  of  a  masonry-conduit  will  be  suf- 
ficient for  the  floor  of  a  creosoted  one. 

Structures  of  this  character  are  gotten  out  and  treated  by 
the  Norfolk  Creosoting  Company,  ready  for  use,  in  accord- 
ance with  specification.  Plans  and  estimates  submitted 
when  desired. 

CREOSOTED    "WOOD-BLOCK    PAVEMENTS. 

Creosoted  wood-block  pavements,  properly  laid  on  a  suit- 
able base,  form  one  of  the  most  durable  and  satisfactory 
street  coverings  yet  devised. 

Creosoted  wood  being  absolutely  non-absorbent,  such  a 
pavement  takes  up  none  of  the  liquids  of  the  street  and 
furnishes  no  lodgment  for  any  substance  deleterious  to 
health. 

Being  perfectly  sanitary,  it  is  especially  well  adapted  to 
the  streets  of  tropical  and  sub-tropical  cities.  By  reason  of 
its  peculiarly  leathery  surface,  a  creosoted  block  pavement 
is  especially  pleasing  to  a  horse,  allowing  him  to  travel 
without  apprehension  of  slipping ;  so  that  he  moves  con- 
fidently and  easily  and  without  that  disagreeable  slapping 
so  noticeable  in  horses  travelling  over  other  forms  of  smooth 
pavements.  Experience  in  the  United  States  and  in  Europe 
has  shown  that  a  properly  constructed  creosoted  wood-block 
pavement  will  carry  a  traffic  of  3,500  tons  per  foot  of  street 
width,  per  annum,  for  a  period  of  fifteen  years  ;  and  that  it 


50  CREOSOTED   TIMBER 

deteriorates  from  wear  and  not  from  decay  ;  so  that  it  may 
be  expected  to  last  proportionately  longer  under  a  less 
volume  of  traffic. 

An  instance  of  the  great  durability  of  such  a  pavement  is 
shown  in  the  cut  below,  which  is  that  of  a  creosoted  wood- 
paving  block,  laid  on  Market  Street,  in  the  City  of  Galveston, 
Texas,  after  seventeen  years'  continual  service.  The  block 
was,  when  laid,  six  inches  deep,  the  actual  wear  during  the 
seventeen  years'  service  was  somewhat  less  than  one-half 
inch,  or  approximately  three  one  hundred ths  inch,  per 
annum.  The  pavement  from  which  this  sample  was  taken 
is  yet  in  service  at  the  end  of  twenty-four  years,  and  is  in 


good  condition  except  as  to  those  portions  which  were  not 
properly  repaired  after  having  been  torn  up  for  the  con- 
struction of  street-car  tracks,  sewers  and  water-pipe  lines. 

A  creosoted  wood-block  pavement  is  superior  to  all  others 
in  that  it  is  noiseless,  smooth  without  being  slippery,  imper- 
vious and  therefore  sanitary,  and  because  its  great  durability 
renders  maintenance  charges  a  minimum. 

Creosoted  wood-paving  blocks  of  any  suitable  dimension 
furnished  to  any  specification  by  the  Norfolk  Creosoting  Com- 
pany, who  make  a  specialty.  Specifications  furnished  upon 
suitable  information  as  to  the  governing  conditions. 

Twelve  pounds  of  oil  per  cubic  foot  is  recommended  for 
this  class  of  work. 


SPECIFICATION   FOR    CREOSOTED 
TIMBER. 

MATERIALS.— Timber  shall  be  of  the  dimension  specified, 
straight,  free  from  windshakes,  large  or  loose  or  decayed 
knots,  red-heart  or  anything  impairing  its  strength  or  dura- 
bility, and  to  be  cut  from  sound  live  trees,  and  to  be  ... 

OIL  —All  oil  shall  be  the  heavy  or  dead  oil  of  coal  tar, 
containing  not  more  than  1^  per  cent,  of  water,  and  not 
more  than  5  per  cent,  of  tar,  and  not  more  than  5  per  cent, 
of  carbolic  acid. 

It  must  not  flash  below  185°  F.  nor  burn  below  200°  F. 
and  it  must  be  fluid  at  118°  F.  It  must  begin  to  distil  at 
320°  F.  and  must  yield  between  that  temperature  and  410° 
F.  of  all  substances,  less  than  20  per  cent.,  by  volume. 

Between  410  and  470°  F.  the  yield  of  naphthalene  must  be 
not  less  than  40  nor  more  than  60  per  cent,  by  volume.  At 
two  degrees  above  its  liquefying  point  it  must  have  a  spe- 
cific gravity  of  maximum  1.05  and  minimum  1.015. 

PROCESSES  OF  TREATMENT. — Seasoning  :  This  is  to  be  accom- 
plished by  subjecting  the  timber  to  the  action  of  live  steam 
for  a  period  of  from  five  to  seven  hours  at  a  pressure  of  35 
to  55  pounds  per  square  inch,  the  temperature  not  at  any 
time  exceeding  275°  F.  unless  the  timber  be  water-soaked, 
in  which  case  it  may  reach  285°  F.  for  the  first  half  of  the 
period.  At  the  expiration  of  the  steaming  the  chamber 
shall  be  entirely  emptied  of  sap  and  water  by  drawing  off 
at  the  bottom.  As  soon  as  the  chamber  is  cleared  of  all  sap 
and  water  a  vacuum  of  not  less  than  20  inches  shall  be  set 
up  and  maintained  in  the  chamber,  for  a  period  of  from  five 
to  eight  hours,  or  until  the  discharge  from  the  vacuum  pump 
has  no  odor  or  taste,  the  temperature  in  the  chamber  being 
maintained  at  between  100  and  130°  F.  The  chamber  being 
again  emptied  of  all  sap  and  water  the  oil  is  to  be  admitted, 
the  vacuum  pump  being  worked  at  its  full  speed  until  the 
chamber  is  filled  with  oil.  As  soon,  thereafter,  as  is  prac- 


52  CREOSOTED   TIMBER 

ticable  such  a  pressure  shall  be  set  up  as  shall  cause  the 
entire  charge  of  timber  to  absorb  .  .  .  pounds  of  oil  within 
.  .  .  per  cent,  more  or  less  (at  a  minimum  penetration  of  1^ 
inches  in  round  timber  for  a  treatment  of  12  pounds  of 
oil  per  cubic  feet,  constituting  a  basis  for  determining  the 
penetration  due  to  a  treatment  of  any  specific  quantity  of 
oil)  .  .  .  inches  from  all  exposed  surfaces.  The  depth  of 
the  penetration  being  ascertained  by  boring  the  treated 
piece  with  an  auger,  making  a  hole  not  more  than  £  inch  in 
diameter,  such  pieces  as  are  found  not  to  have  the  required 
penetration  being  returned  to  the  chamber  with  a  subse- 
quent charge  for  further  treatment. 

INSPECTION. — Inspection  shall  be  made  as  the  work  pro- 
gresses, and  at  as  early  a  date  as  is  practicable,  in  order  that 
there  may  be  a  minimum  loss  of  time  and  materials  due  to 
rejections. 

The  inspector,  or  other  authorized  agent  of  the  purchaser, 
shall  have  reasonable  notice  of  the  intention  on  the  part  of 
the  contractor  to  begin  the  treatment  of  a  charge  of  timber, 
and  he  shall  have  at  all  times  during  the  treatment  of  the 
timber  under  his  charge  access  to  the  works,  and  all  reason- 
able and  necessary  facilities  for  ascertaining  that  all  the  re- 
quirements of  this  specification  are  complied  with.  Such 
"  reasonable  facilities  "providing  opportunity,  at  the  proper 
time,  for  measuring  all  timber,  treatment-chambers,  oil- 
tanks,  etc.,  and  for  taking  samples  of  the  oil  being  used,  for 
analysis,  as  often  as  he  may  deem  necessary. 

NOTE.— All  cut  ends,  mortises,  tenons,  and  other  incisions  of  the  original 
surface  of  creosoted  timber,  should  be  protected  by  not  less  than  four  coats  of 
creosote  oil,  applied  boiling  hot  with  a  brush  or  mop.  In  the  case  of  moor- 
ing piles,  fender  piles,  and  other  timber  having  the  cut  end  exposed  to  the 
weather,  the  portions  so  exposed  should  have,  in  addition  to  the  creosote 
oil,  a  heavy  final  coat  of  a  paste  made  of  equal  parts  of  unslaked  lime  and 
creosote  oil,  applied  hot. 


ITS    PREPARATION   AND    USES 


53 


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54  CREOSOTED   TIMBER 

RECTANGULAR  WOODEN   PILLARS. 


Crippling  Strength 
Pounds  per  Sq.  Inch. 

Crippling  Strength 
Pounds  per  Sq.  Inch. 

1 

6  +  1 

I 

1 

6  +  1 

a 

^ 

1 

1 

10  d 

d 

t 

1 

5 

10(2 

i 

i 

i 

1 

Ends  Pin 

I 

12. 
13.2 
14.4 

4440 
4250 
4070 

4020 
3800 
3580 

3680 
3430 
3190 

7.2 
7.32 
7.44 

30. 
31.2 
32.4 

2120 
2020 
1930 

1620 
1530 
1450 

1310 
1230 
1160 

9. 
9.12 
9.24 

15.6 

3880 

3370 

2970 

7.56 

33.6 

1830 

1370 

1100  !  9.36 

16.8 

3700  3160 

2760 

7.68 

34.8  i  1750 

1300 

1040  \  9.48 

18.  I  3520  ;  2970  ;  2570  1  7.8 

36. 

1670 

1230 

980  \  9.6 

19.2  I  3350  2790  \  2390 

7.92 

37.2 

1590 

1170 

930  !  9.72 

20.4 

3190 

2620  i  2230 

8.04 

38.4 

1520 

1120 

880 

9.84 

21.6 

3040 

2740  2080 

8.16 

39.6 

1450 

1060 

840 

9.96 

22.8 

2890 

2320 

1940 

8.28 

40.8 

1390 

1010 

790 

10.08 

24.  :  2740 

2180  1810 

8.4 

42. 

1330 

960 

760 

10.2 

25.2  2600  !  2050 

1690 

8.52 

43.2 

1270 

920 

720 

10.32 

26.4  1  2470  ;  1930 

1580 

8.64 

44.4 

1220 

880 

690 

10.44 

27.6 

2350 

1820 

1490 

8.76 

45.6 

1170 

840 

650 

10.56 

28.8 

2230 

1720 

1400 

8.88 

46.8 

1120 

800 

620 

10.68 

length  in  inches. 


d  least  side  of  cross-section  in  inches. 
Formulae :    Flat  Ends ;    Pin  and  Flat  Ends  ;    Pin  Ends. 
5600  5600  5600 

-i    ,     I2 


656? 


1  + 


1.512 


If  desired  the  constant  in  the  above  formula,  5600,  may  be 
replaced  by  8000  pounds  ultimate  resistance  to  compression 
of  Georgia  long-leafed  yellow  pine ;  7000  pounds  ultimate 
resistance  to  compression  of  white  oak.  Applicable  to 
either  plain  or  creosoted  timber. 


CLASSIFICATION  OF  YELLOW 
PINE  LUMBER. 

Southern  Lumber  and  Timber  Association,  adopted  February  14,  1883. 

CLASSIFICATION. — Flooring  shall  embrace  four  and  five 
quarter  inches  in  thickness  by  three  to  six  inches  in  width. 
For  example  :  1  x  3,  4,  5  and  6 ;  \\  x  3,  4,  5  and  6. 

Boards  shall  embrace  all  thicknesses  under  one  and  one- 
half  by  seven  inches  and  up  wide,  including  one  and  one- 
half  inches  in  thickness,  by  seven  in  width.  For  example  : 
f ,  1,  1£,  \\  inches  thick  by  seven  inches  and  up  in  width. 

Scantling  shall  embrace  all  sizes  from  two  to  five  inches 
in  thickness,  and  two  to  six  inches  wide.  For  example  : 
2  x  2,  2  x  3,  2x4,  2  x  5,2  x  6,  3  x  3,  3x4,  3x5,  3x6,  4x4, 
4  x  5,  4  x  6,  5  x  5,  5  x  6. 

Plank  shall  embrace  all  sizes  from  one  and  one-half  to  five 
inches  in  thickness  by  seven  inches  and  up  in  width.  For 
example :  1£,  2,  2£,  3,  3$,  4,  4£,  and  5x7  and  up  in  width. 

Dimension  sizes  shall  embrace  all  sizes,  six  inches  and  up 
in  thickness  by  seven  inches  and  up  in  width,  including  6x6. 
For  example  :  6  x  6,  6  x  7,  7  x  7,  7  x  8,  8  x  8,  8  x  9,  and  up. 

INSPECTION.— Square  edge :  Flooring  shall  show  no  wane, 
shall  be  free  from  through  or  round  shakes  or  knots  exceed- 
ing one  inch  and  a  half  in  diameter,  or  more  than  six  to  a 
board  ;  sap  no  objection. 

Boards  shall  show  no  wane,  shall  be  free  from  round  or 
through  shakes,  large  or  unsound  knots  ;  sap  no  objection. 

Scantling  shall  be  free  from  injurious  shakes,  unsound 
knots,  or  knots  to  impair  strength  ;  sap  no  objection. 

Plank  shall  be  free  from  unsound  knots,  wanes,  through 
or  round  shakes  ;  sap  no  objection. 

All  stock  to  be  well  and  truly  manufactured,  full  to  sizes, 
and  saw-butted. 

MERCHANTABLE.— Flooring  shall  show  one  heart  face,  re- 
gardless of  sap  on  opposite  side  ;  free  from  through  or  round 


56  CREOSOTED   TIMBER 

shakes,  or  knots  exceeding  one  inch  in  diameter,  or  more 
than  four  to  a  board  on  face  side. 

Boards,  nine  and  a  half  inches  and  under  wide,  shall  show 
one  heart  face  and  two-thirds  heart  on  opposite  side  ;  over 
nine  inches  wide,  shall  show  two-thirds  heart  on  both  sides  ; 
all  free  from  round  or  through  shakes,  large  or  unsound 
knots. 

Scantling  shall  show  three  corners  heart,  free  from  injurious 
shakes  or  unsound  knots. 

Plank,  nine  inches  and  under  wide,  shall  show  one  heart 
face  and  two-thirds  heart  on  opposite  side  ;  over  nine  inches 
wide,  shall  show  two-thirds  heart  on  both  sides  ;  all  free 
from  round  or  through  shakes,  large  or  unsound  knots. 

DIMENSION  SIZES. — All  square  lumber  shall  show  two-thirds 
heart  on  two  sides,  and  not  less  than  one-half  heart  on  two 
other  sides.  Other  sizes  shall  show  two-thirds  heart  on  faces, 
and  show  heart  two-thirds  of  the  length  on  edges,  excepting 
where  the  width  exceeds  the  thickness  by  three  inches  or 
over,  then  it  shall  show  heart  on  the  edges  for  one-half  its 
length. 

Stepping  shall  show  three  corners  heart,  free  from  shakes, 
and  all  knots  exceeding  half  an  inch  in  diameter,  and  not  more 
than  six  to  the  board. 

Rough  Edge  or  Flitch  shall  be  sawed  from  good  heart  tim- 
ber, and  shall  be  measured  in  the  middle,  on  the  narrow 
face  ;  free  from  injurious  shakes  or  unsound  knots. 

All  stock  to  be  well  and  truly  manufactured,  full  to  sizes, 
and  saw- butted. 

Prime  Flooring  shall  show  one  entire  heart  face  and  two- 
thirds  heart  on  the  opposite  side,  clear  of  splits,  shakes  or 
knots  exceeding  one  inch  in  diameter,  or  more  than  four  to 
the  board. 

Boards  shall  show  one  heart  face  and  two-thirds  heart  on 
the  opposite  side,  free  from  shakes  and  large  and  unsound 
knots. 

Scantling  shall  show  three  corners  heart,  and  not  to  ex- 
ceed one  inch  of  sap  on  fourth  corner,  measured  diagonally, 
free  from  heart  shakes,  large  or  unsound  knots. 


ITS   PREPARATION   AND   USES  57 

Plank  shall  show  one  entire  heart  face,  on  opposite  face 
not  exceeding  one- sixth  its  width  of  sap  on  each  corner,  free 
from  unsound  knots,  through  or  round  shakes ;  sap  to  be 
measured  on  face 

DIMENSION  SIZES. — On  all  square  sizes  the  sap  on  each  cor- 
ner shall  not  exceed  one-sixth  the  width  of  the  face.  When 
the  width  does  not  exceed  the  thickness  by  three  inches,  to 
show  half  heart  on  narrow  face  the  entire  length  ;  exceed- 
ing three  inches,  to  show  heart  on  narrow  face  the  entire 
length  ;  sap  on  wide  faces  to  be  measured  as  on  square  sizes. 

Rough  Edge  or  Flitch  shall  be  measured  in  middle,  on 
narrow  face,  inside  of  sap,  free  from  shakes  or  unsound 
knots. 

CLEAR.— Flooring,  Stepping  and  Boards  shall  be  free  from 
knots,  sap,  pitch,  and  all  other  defects. 

Scantling  shall  be  free  from  sap,  large  knots,  and  other 
defects. 

Plank  shall  be  free  from  large  knots,  sap  or  other  defects. 

Dimension  Sizes  shall  be  free  from  sap,  large  or  unsound 
knots,  shakes  through  or  round. 

Resawed  lumber  is  lumber  sawn  on  four  sides. 

Rough  Edge  or  Flitch  is  lumber  sawn  on  two  sides. 


BALTIMORE,  October  30,  1899. 
NORFOLK  CREOSOTING  Co.,  Norfolk,  Va. 

Gentlemen: — It  gives  us  pleasure  to  testify  to  the  valuable  work  that  you 
are  doing  and  to  the  character  of  material  that  has  been  supplied  us  for  our 
various  contracts  along  the  Seaboard,  where  we  have  used  creosoted  piles 
and  timber. 

We  have  been  using  your  material  constantly  since  you  started  your 
works  and  have  not  had  a  complaint  from  any  of  the  completed  contracts 
that  we  have  done  up  to  this  time. 

The  work  has  been  not  only  satisfactory,  but  the  capacity  of  your  plant 
has  been  such  as  to  give  us  prompt  and  reliable  deliveries  of  material. 
Yours  very  truly, 

W.  B.  BROOKS,  Jr.,  Vice-President, 

Sanford  &  Brooks  Co.,  Contractors. 


58 


CREOSOTED   TIMBER 


BOUND  TIMBER. 

BOARD  MEASURE  VOLUME. 


Diameter 
in 
Inches. 

LENGTH  IN  FEET. 

12 

14 

16 

18 

20 

22 

24 

11 

37 

43 

49 

55 

61 

67 

74 

12 

48 

56 

64 

72 

80 

88 

96 

13 

61 

71 

81 

91 

101 

111 

122 

14 

75 

88 

100 

112 

125 

137 

150 

15 

91 

106 

121 

136 

151 

166 

181 

16 

108 

126 

144 

162 

180 

198 

216 

17 

124 

148 

169 

190 

211 

232 

253 

18 

147 

171 

196 

220 

245 

269 

294 

19 

169 

197 

225 

253 

280 

309 

338 

20 

192 

224 

256 

288 

320 

352 

384 

21 

217 

253 

289 

325 

361 

397 

433 

22 

243 

283 

324 

364 

404 

445 

486 

23 

271 

313 

359 

406 

452 

496 

541 

24 

300 

350 

400 

450 

500 

550 

600 

25 

331 

386 

441 

496 

551 

606 

661 

26 

363 

423 

484 

544 

605 

665 

726 

27 

397 

463 

530 

596 

661 

726 

794 

28 

432 

504 

576 

648 

720 

793 

864 

29 

469 

547 

625 

703 

782 

860 

938 

30 

507 

591 

676 

761 

845 

930 

1014 

31 

547 

638 

729 

820 

912 

1004 

1094 

32 

588 

686 

784 

882 

980 

1078 

1176 

33 

631 

736 

841 

946 

1051 

1156 

1263 

34 

675 

787 

900 

1012 

1125 

1237 

1351 

ITS   PREPARATION   AND   USES 


59 


APPROXIMATE  AMOUNTS  OP  WOODEN 
RAILWAY  TRESTLES. 


Height  of  Bent, 
Feet. 

Feet  Beam  per  Lineal 
Foot. 

Masonry  Footings. 
Cubic  Yards  per 
Lineal  Foot. 

Pounds  of  Iron  per 
Lineal  Foot. 

If  Filled.  Cubic 
Yards  Earth  Re- 
quired per  Lineal 
Foot. 

Stringer 
Tico  pieces 
8*.  16. 

Stringer 
Three  pcs. 
7xlA. 

Bolts  and 
Nuts. 

Washers. 

\ 
10     :       207 

230 

0.8 

9.3 

2.6 

12 

15 

236 

259 

0.9 

10.2 

3.1 

22 

20 

268 

291 

1.1 

10.2 

3.1 

35 

25 

295 

318 

1.2 

11.7 

3.9 

50 

30 

332 

355 

1.3 

12.4 

4.3 

69 

35 

362 

385 

1.4 

13.3 

4.9 

89 

40 

327 

336 

0.8 

11.2 

3.7 

114 

45 

340 

349 

0.8 

11.2 

3.7 

141 

50 

380 

389 

0.9 

11.8 

4.1 

170 

55 

413 

422 

1.0 

13.7 

5.1 

203 

60 

425 

434 

1.0 

13.7 

5.1 

238 

65 

472 

481 

1.1 

16.2 

6.9 

276 

70 

493 

502 

1.1 

16.2 

6.9 

316 

75 

540 

549 

1.0 

17.7 

7.7 

360 

80 

583 

592 

1.0 

19.4 

8.7 

443 

85 

599 

608 

1.0 

19.4 

8.7 

470 

90 

635 

644 

1.0 

21.9 

11.0 

507 

95 

657 

666 

1.0 

21.9 

11.0 

561 

100 

706 

715 

1.0 

23.3 

11.8 

619 

110 

769 

778 

1.0 

24.9 

12.8 

742 

120 

828 

837 

1.0 

27.4 

14.5 

839 

130 

898 

907 

1.0 

28.8 

15.3 

1021 

140 

986 

995 

1.0 

32.9 

18.0 

1177 

150 

1052 

1065 

1.0 

34.3 

18.8 

1344 

60 


CREOSOTED   TIMBER 


PROPERTIES  OF  SEASONED  STRUCTURAL 
WOODS. 


Variety. 

Weight 
Cubic 
Feet. 

Ultimate  Strength  per  Square  Inch. 

Tension. 

Compres- 
sion. 

Shear 
Across  Gr. 

Shear 
WithGr. 

Ash                       .    . 

50' 
47 

16,850 
10,430 

9,180 
10,432 

1,250 

Beech,  Amer  

Birch,       "       .... 

47 

7,000 

8,000 

Cedar,  Amer.  Red  . 

40 

10,000 

5000 

Cherry,  Wild   .... 
Chestnut   

42 
41 

36 
35 
25 
25 
53 

11,500 
6,000 
14,000 
9,000 
9,000 
11,000 

8,000 
5,300 
6,800 
10,300 
6,800 
6,000 
8,000 

616 

1,250 
800 
800 

400 

Cypress  ...          .   . 

Elm,  Amer.  White    . 
Fi  r-Spruce 

Hemlock  

Hickory,  Amer.     .    . 

Locust,  Black  .... 

58 

18,000 

9,800 

"       Honey  .   .   . 

58 

18,000 

7,000 

Maple,  Amer  

49 

10,000 

8,000 

Oak,  Amer.  White    . 

50 

10,000 

7,000 

2,000 

800 

"       Red    .   . 

45 

10,000 

6,000 

2,000 

Pine,      "       White    . 

25 

10,000 

8,500 

800 

400 

Pine,  Amer,  Long- 

Leafed  Yellow  .   . 

45 

12,600 

8,500 

1,440 

600 

Shortleaf  .... 

40 

5,900 

Loblolly    
Poplar    

40 
30 
45 

7,000 
15,000 

6,500 
5,000 
12,000 

Teak,  Indian    .... 

Sycamore  

37 

12,000 

6,000 

Walnut,  Black    .   .   . 

40 

8,000 

8,000 

ITS   PREPARATION   AND    USES 


61 


1 


*! 
?l 

i  1 


H 

^   I 


-0    CM 


-> 


62 


CREOSOTED    TIMBER 


H 


(M    10  rO  CO 


fir 


ITS    PREPARATION    AND    USES 


63 


g 

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.    -"            ® 
t!    £    <tf    a     •    £ 

I 

i 

*s 

1 

ft    o<    ^     2     0*2 

i 

^ 

ft$ 

^ 

s    *    '3               a 

1o 

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listance  to 

COLU 

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t>     O     P     co      H 

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64  CREOSOTED  TIMBER 

USEFUL   INFORMATION. 

BRITISH  THERMAL  UNIT.— The  British  Thermal  Unit,  B. 
T.  U.,  as  used  by  British  and  American  engineers,  is  the 
amount  of  heat  consumed  in  raising  one  pound  of  water,  at 
its  maximum  density,  one  degree  Fahrenheit;  965.7  B.  T.  U. 
equal  one  unit  of  evaporation. 

COMMERCIAL  BOILER  HORSE-POWER.— A  commercial  "  Boiler 
Horse-Power  "  is  the  evaporation  of  thirty  pounds  of  water, 
per  hour,  from  a  temperature  of  100°  F.,  into  steam  at 
seventy  pounds  gauge  pressure  ;  equal  to  34.5  units  of  evap- 
oration (34.5  pounds  of  water  evaporated  from  a  temperature 
of  212  °  F.  into  steam  at  the  same  temperature) ;  also  equal 
to  33,305  B.  T.  U.  per  hour.  Five  pounds  of  average  bitu- 
minous coal  should  develop  one  horse-power  per  hour. 

DEVELOPMENT  OF  HORSE-POWER. — Twelve  square  feet  of 
heating  surface  (twelve  square  feet  of  area  exposed  to  water 
on  one  side  and  to  heat  on  the  other) ;  or  its  equivalent,  one 
third  square  foot  of  effective  grate  area,  should  develop  one 
horse-power  per  hour. 

ENGINE  HORSE-POWER. — An  "  Engine  Horse-Power  "  is 
the  measure  of  energy  expended  in  raising  33,000  pounds 
one  foot  high  in  one  minute.  The  effective  horse-power  of 
any  well-designed  "Engine"  is  approximately  80$  of  its 
I.  H.  P. 

7.  H.  P.  =  PS.(—*\  ;  also  I.  H.  Pm=A.P.L.n. 
V2.05  J  33,000 

P  =  mean  effective  gauge  pressure  in  pounds  per  sq.  in. 

8  =  mston  speed,  in  feet  per  minute. 

'        iiet  diameter  of  cylinder  in  inches. 

L  =  length  of  stroke,  n  number  of  strokes,  half  rev.  per  min. 

A       net  area  of  piston  in  square  inches  also  equal  D. 

WATER.— Doubling  the  diameter  of  a  pipe  increases  its 
capacity  four  times.  Friction  of  liquids  in  pipes  increases 
as  the  square  of  the  velocity. 

The  mean  pressure  of  the  atmosphere  is  usually  estimated 
at  14.7  pounds  per  square  inch,  so  that  with  a  perfect  vacu- 
um it  will  sustain  a  column  of  mercury  2?.9  inches,  or  a 
column  of  water  33.9  feet  high. 


ITS   PREPARATION   AND   USES  65 

To  find  the  pressure  in  pounds  per  square  inch  of  a  column  of 
water,  multiply  the  height  of  the  column  in  feet  by  .434. 
Approximately,  we  say  that  every  foot  elevation  is  equal  to 
half  pound  pressure  per  square  inch ;  this  allows  for 
ordinary  friction. 

To  find  the  diameter  of  a  pump  cylinder  to  move  a  given 
quantity  of  water  per  minute  (100  feet  of  piston  being  the 
standard  of  speed)  divide  the  number  of  gallons  by  4,  then 
extract  the  square  root,  and  the  product  will  be  the  diame- 
ter in  inches  of  the  pump  cylinder. 

To  find  quantity  of  water  elevated  in  one  minute  running  at 
100  feet  of  piston  speed  per  minute,  square  the  diameter  of 
the  water  cylinder  in  inches  and  multiply  by  4.  Example : 
.Capacity  of  a  5-inch  cylinder  is  desired.  The  square  of  the 
diameter  (5  inches)  is  25,  which,  multiplied  by  4,  gives  100, 
the  number  of  gallons  per  minute  (approximately). 

To  find  the  horse-power  necessary  to  elevate  water  to  a  given 
height,  multiply  the  total  weight  of  the  water  in  pounds  by 
the  height  in  feet,  and  divide  the  product  by  33,000  (an  al- 
lowance of  25  per  cent,  should  be  added  for  water  friction  and 
a  further  allowance  of  25  per  cent,  for  loss  in  steam  cylinder). 
The  area  of  the  steam  piston,  multiplied  by  the  steam  pres- 
sure, gives  the  total  amount  of  pressure  that  can  be  exerted. 
The  area  of  the  water  piston,  multiplied  by  the  pressure  of  wa- 
ter per  square  inch,  gives  the  resistance.  A  margin  must  be 
made  between  the  power  and  the  resistance  to  move  the  pistons 
at  the  required  speed — say  from  20  to  40  per  cent,  according 
to  speed  and  other  conditions. 

To  find  the  capacity  of  a  cylinder  in  gallons.  Multiplying 
the  area  in  inches  by  the  length  of  stroke  in  inches  will  give 
the  total  number  of  cubic  inches  ;  divide  this  amount  by 
231  (which  is  the  cubical  contents  of  a  U.  S.  gallon  in  inches), 
and  the  product  is  the  capacity  in  gallons. 

To  find  the  number  of  gallons  in  a  tank,  multiply  the  inside 
bottom  diameter  in  inches  by  the  inside  top  diameter  in 
inches,  then  this  product  by  34  ;  point  off  four  figures  and 
the  result  will  be  the  average  number  of  gallons  to  one  inch 
in  depth  of  the  tank. 


66 


CREOSOTED   TIMBER 


PROPERTIES  OF   SATURATED  STEAM. 


g^. 

1  ' 

* 

^ 

SJ 

to'g 

- 

|* 

1  1 

|  1 

&~- 

4|? 

^1 

1 

^   . 

11 

\* 

!•§ 

rt 
11 

•§  e 
l| 

•S'1 

1* 

s 

C>D^ 

a 

ll 

-1 

P 

et 

ft 

IS 

J& 

|| 

•ll 

II 

1 

e| 

M 

«! 

^ 

51 

3u 

i 

101.99 

1113.1 

1043.0 

0.00299 

334.50 

0.9661 

—13 

2 

126.27 

1120.5 

1026.1 

0.00576 

173.60 

0.9738 

—12 

3 

141.62 

1125.1 

1015.3 

0.00844 

118.50        0.9786 

ll 

4 

153.09 

1128.6 

1007.2 

0.01107 

90.33    j    0.9822 

10 

5 

162.34 

1131.5 

1000.8 

0.01366 

73.21        0.9852 

9 

6 

170.14 

1133.8 

995.2 

0.01622 

61.65       0.9876 

8 

7 

176.90 

1135.9 

990.5 

0.01874 

53.39    \    0.9897 

7 

8 

182.92 

1137.7 

986.2 

0.02125 

47.06    i    0.9916 

6 

9 

188.33 

1139.4 

982.5 

0.02374 

42.12    j    0.9934 

5 

10 

193.25 

1140.9 

979.0 

0.02621 

38.15       0.9949 

0 

15 

213.03 

1146.9 

965.1 

0.03826 

26.14     ;    1.0003 

-1-  5 

20 

227.95 

1151.5 

954.6 

0.05023 

19.91        1.0051 

10 

25 

240.04 

1155.1 

946.0 

0.06199 

16.13        1.0099 

15 

30 

250.27 

1158.3 

938.9 

0.07360 

13.59        1.0129 

20 

35 

259.19 

1161.0 

932.6 

0.08508 

11.75        1.0157 

25 

40 

267.13 

1163-4 

927.0 

0.09644 

10.37        1.0182 

30 

.  45 

274.29 

1165.6 

922.0 

0.10770 

9.28        1.0205 

35 

50 

280.85 

1167.6 

917.4 

0.11880 

8.42        1.0225 

40 

55 

286.89 

1169.4 

913.1 

0.12990 

7.69        1.0245 

45 

60 

292.51 

1171.2 

909.3 

0.14090 

7.09        1.0263 

50 

65 

297.77 

1127.7 

905.5 

0.15190 

6.58        1.2080 

55 

70 

302.71 

1174.3 

902.1 

0.1628 

6.14        1.0295 

60 

75 

307.38 

1175.7 

898.8 

0.1736 

5.76        1.0309 

65 

80 

311.80 

1177.0 

895.6 

0.1843 

5.42        1.0323 

70 

85 

316.02 

1178.3 

892.5 

0.1957 

5.12    j    1.0337 

75 

90 

320.04 

1179.6 

889.6 

0.2058 

4.86       1.0350 

80 

95 

323.89 

1180.7 

886.7 

0.2165 

4.62        1.0362 

85 

100 

327.58 

1181.9 

884.0 

0.2271 

4.40    I    1.0374 

90 

105 

331.13 

1182.9 

881.3 

0.2378 

4.20        1.0385 

95 

110 

334.56 

1184.0 

878.8 

0.2484 

4.02    j    1.0396 

100 

115 

337.86 

1185.0 

876.3 

0.2589 

3.86    S    1.0406 

105 

120 

341.05 

1186.0 

874.0 

0.2695 

3.71        1.0416 

115 

130 

347.12 

1187.8 

869.4 

0.2904 

3.44 

1.0435 

135 

150 

358.26 

1191.2 

861.2 

0.3321 

3.01 

1.0470 

155 

170 

368.29 

1194.3 

853.8 

0.3737 

2.67 

1.0502 

175 

190 

377.44 

1197.1 

847.0 

0.4153 

2.40 

1.0531 

210 

225 

391.79 

1201.4 

836.3 

0.4876 

2.05 

1.0576 

260 

275 

409.50 

1206.8 

823.2 

0.5913 

1.69 

1.0632 

310 

325 

424.82 

1211.5 

811.9 

0.6960 

1.43 

1.0680 

NOTE. — The  equivalent  evaporation,  at  any  temperature,  is  equal  to  the 
given  evaporation  multiplied  by  the  factor  of  its  pressure  and  divided  by  the 
factor  of  the  desired  pressure. 

The  equivalent  evaporation  from  any  other  temperature  than  212°  F. 
by  adding  to  the  given  factor  .00101  multiplied  by  the  number  of  degrees 
temperature  below  212. 


ITS  PREPARATION   AND   USES 


67 


*8<;      e 

JIM 


oo     oooo 


til 


O'd-ooOTtDooc>-TH 


»3ir>ooooooeocD§?oooo?c5DCO 


d  r4  —  !  i-i  CM'  co  tt-'  10  co  c~-'  en  r-i  w      LO  a 


w  ^  LO  aj  w'  id  oo  TH 


OOOOOr- 


*•  IO  ID  C-»  CO  O>  O 


68 


CREOSOTED   TIMBER 


SHEET  METALS. 

WEIGHTS  OF,   PER  SQUARE  FOOT. 


1  Thickness  in\  1 
1  Inches.  \ 

Wrought 
Iron. 

Cast  Iron. 

Steel. 

Copper. 

Brass. 

Lead. 

Zinc. 

& 

2.51 

2.34 

2.55 

2.89 

2.67 

3.69 

2.34 

^ 

5.03 

4.69 

5.10 

5.78 

5.35 

7.38 

4.68 

~fs 

7.58 

7.03 

7.66 

8.67 

8.02 

11.07 

7.02 

\ 

10.07 

9.38 

10.21 

11.56 

10.70 

14.76 

9.36 

TS 

12.58 

11.73 

12.76 

14.45 

13.37 

18.45 

11.70 

% 

15.10 

14.07 

15.33 

17.34 

16.05 

22.14 

14.04 

T^ 

17.62 

16.42 

17.87 

20.23 

18.72 

25.83 

16.34 

| 

20.14 

18.77 

20.42 

23.12 

21.40 

29.53 

18.72 

"& 

22.65 

21.11 

22.97 

26.01 

24.07 

33.22 

21.08 

£ 

25.17 

23.46 

25.52 

28.90 

26.75 

36.91 

23.44 

tt 

27.69 

25.81 

28.08 

31.97 

29.42 

40.60 

25.80 

1 

30.21 

28.15 

30.63 

34.68 

32.10 

44.29 

28.13 

ft 

32.72 

30.50 

33.18 

37.57 

35.19 

47.98 

30.49 

? 

35.24 

32.85 

35.73 

40.69 

38.28 

51.67 

32.81 

if 

37.76 

35.19 

28.28 

43.35 

41.37 

55.37 

35.17 

1 

40.28 

37.54 

40.83 

46.25 

43.75 

59.06 

37.50 

NAILS  AND   SPIKES. 


Nails. 

Spikes. 

Trade 

Size. 

Number 
pei- 
Pound. 

Length  in 
Inches. 

Number 
per 
Pound. 

Length  in 
Inches. 

Number 
per 
Pound. 

Length  in 
Inches. 

3d 

400 

v*k 

640 

11/4 

30 

33, 

4d 

300 

Wb 

380 

1^/2 

23 

4 

6d 

150 

2 

210 

2 

13 

5 

8d 

85 

2^ 

115 

21^2 

10 

6 

10  d 

60 

3  " 

77 

3 

7 

7 

16  d 

40 

31^2 

48 

3^72 

5 

8 

20d 

20 

4 

31 

4 

43)2 

9 

30d 

16 

4^2 

22 

41/2 

40d 

14 

5 

17 

5 

60d 

S 

6 

11 

6 

ITS   PREPARATION   AND   USES 


69 


s 

5 


K 
- 

= 

OD 


A 
£ 


00000 


I 


o'o'ooo 


II 


1* 

2< 


70  CREOSOTED  TIMBER 

IRON  CHAINS  ("PROOF"). 


Diameter 
of  Bar. 

Inches. 

Weight  per 
Lineal  Foot. 

Pounds. 

Breaking 
Strain. 

Pounds. 

Diameter 
of  Bur. 

Inches. 

Weight  per 
Lineal  Foot. 

Pounds. 

Breaking 
Strain. 

Pounds. 

0.14 

0.8 

3000 

1.% 

18.3 

88300 

o.% 

1.7 

7000 

Ufa 

21.7 

105200 

0.^ 

2.5 

12300 

1.% 

26.0 

123500 

o.% 

4.3 

19200 

1.% 

28.0             143300 

0.34 

5.8 

27000 

l-7/8 

32.0 

164500 

0.7/8 

8.0 

37000 

2.0 

38.0 

187000 

1.0 

.  10.7 

49200 

2.1/4 

54.0 

224400 

Vk 

12.5 

59200 

2.^ 

71.0 

277000 

i.\ 

16.0 

73000 

2.34 

88.0 

335300 

MANILA  ROPE   (3  PLY). 


Actual 
Circum- 
ference. 

Approx- 
imate 
Diam. 

Weight 
per  Lin. 
Foot. 

Breaking 
Strain. 

Actual 
Circum- 
ference. 

Approx- 
imate 
Diam. 

Weight 
perLin. 
Foot. 

Breaking 
Strain. 

Inches. 

Inches. 

Pounds. 

Pounds. 

Inches. 

Inches. 

Pounds 

Pounds. 

0.% 

0.24 

0.19 

560 

6. 

1.9 

1.2 

25500 

1. 

0.32 

0.33 

780 

6.1/2 

2.0 

1.4 

29100 

i*fe 

0.5 

0.07 

1560 

7. 

2.2 

1.6 

32700 

2. 

0.6 

0.13 

2730 

7.^ 

2.4 

1.9 

36000 

2.*fc 

0.8 

0.21 

4270 

8. 

2.5 

2.1 

39800 

3. 

0.9 

2.90 

6100 

9. 

2.8 

2.7 

47000 

3.^2 

1.1 

0.40 

8500 

10. 

3.2 

3.3 

54000 

4. 

1.3 

0.53 

11500 

11. 

3.5 

4.0 

61300 

4.^ 

1.4 

0.67 

14700 

12. 

3.8 

4.7 

68500 

ITS   PREPARATION   AND   USES 


71 


& 

— 

J 

H1 
Q 


•spunoj 
WW  Md  jy6}9M. 


COOJOJi-ii-ii-JcJOOOOOOCJO 


•»?»«a>W7  W>  ScoP-aS 
flWWFWww^JW 


<foy  v/nuvjf 
9jD(iin5g-  fo 


.  10  -^  co  CM  rH  o>  co  i>  t 


^lin^HC-tnCMOO 

co  c<i  oa  I-H  i—  1  1—  1  1—  i 


?oo^  ^acf  ;y/J?9,ti   06  co  10  ^  co  co  oi ea^i r4 d c> o* oo d 


i-HOJCO^inLOCOC'-COCDO 


ja 

111 
I^-g 


2    -2 
I 


im:  i 


iii! 

" 


111     2    1 


72 


CREOSOTED  TIMBER 

WIRE  GAUGES. 


INCHES. 

Number. 

London  or 
Old  English. 

English 
Legal 
Standard. 

Sfubbs 
or  Birm- 
ingham. 

Browne  and 
Sharpe. 

Roebling. 

000000 

0.464 

0460 

00000 

0.432 

0.430 

0000 

0.4540 

0.400 

6.454 

0.46000 

0.393 

000 

0.4250 

0.372 

0.425 

0.40964 

0.362 

00 

0.3800 

0.348 

0.380 

0.36480 

0.331 

0 

0.3400 

0.324 

0.340 

0.32486 

0.307 

1 

0.3000 

0.300 

0.300 

0.28930 

0.283 

2 

0.2840 

0.276 

0.284 

0.25763 

0.263 

3 

0.2590 

0.252 

0.259 

0.22942 

0.244 

4 

0.2380 

0.232 

0.238 

0.20431 

0.225 

5 

0.2200 

0.212 

0.220 

0.18194 

0.207 

6 

0.2030 

0.192 

0.203 

0.16202 

0.192 

7 

0.1800 

0.176 

0.180 

0.14428 

0.177 

8 

0.1650 

0.160 

0.165 

0.12849 

0.162 

9 

0.1480 

0.144 

0.148 

0.11443 

0.148 

10 

0.1340 

0.128 

0.134 

0.10189 

0.135 

11 

0.1200 

0.116 

0.120 

0.09074 

0.120 

12 

0.1090 

0.104 

0.109 

0.08081 

0.105 

13 

0.0950 

0.092 

0.095 

0.07196 

0.092 

14 

0.0830 

0.080 

0.083 

0.06408 

0.080 

15 

0.0720 

0.072 

0.072 

0.05706 

0.072 

16 

0.0650 

0.064 

0.065 

0.05082 

0.063 

17 

0.0580 

0.056 

0.058 

0.04525 

0.054  - 

18 

0.0490 

0.048 

0.049 

0.04030 

0.047 

19 

0.0400 

0.040 

0.042 

0.03589 

O.Q41 

20 

0.0350 

0.036 

0.035 

0.03196 

0.035 

21 

0.0315 

0.032 

0.032 

0.02846 

0.032 

22 

0.0295 

0.028 

0.028 

0.02534 

0.028 

23 

0.0270 

0.024 

0.025 

0.02257 

0.025 

24 

0.0250 

0.022 

0.022 

0.02010 

0.023 

25 

0.0230 

0.020 

0.020 

0.01790 

0.020 

26 

0.0205 

0.018 

0.018 

0.01594 

0.018 

27 

0.01875 

0.0164 

0.016 

0.01419 

0.017 

28 

0.01650 

0.0148 

0.014 

0.01264 

0.016 

29 

0.01550 

0.0136 

0.013 

0.01125 

0.015 

30 

0.01375 

0.0124 

0.012 

0.01002 

0.014 

31 

0.01225 

0.0116 

0.010 

0.00893 

0.0135 

32 

0.01125 

0.0108 

0.009 

0.00795 

0.0130  ' 

33 

0.01025 

0.0100 

0.008 

0.00708 

0.0110 

34 

0.00950 

0.0092 

0.007 

0.00630 

0.0100 

35 

0.00900 

0.0084 

0.005 

0.00561 

0.0095 

36 

0.00750 

0.0076 

0.004 

0.00500 

0.0090 

ITS  PREPARATION   AND  USES 


74 


CREOSOTED   TIMBER 


AREAS  AND   CIRCUMFERENCES  OF 
CIRCLES. 


1 

§ 

Area. 

Circum- 
ference. 

1 

Area. 

Circum- 
ference. 

1 

Area. 

Circum- 
ference. 

0.1 

0.007854 

0.31416 

4.0 
.1 

12.5664 
13.2025 

12.5664 
12.8805 

8.0 
.1 

50.2655 
51.5300 

25.1327 
25.4469 

.2 

0.031416 

.-62832 

.2 

13.8544  1    13.1947  I  i      .2:52.8102     25.7611 

.3 

.070686 

.94248 

.3 

14.5220  !    13.5088  H      .3  i  54.1061  !  26  0752 

.4 

.12566 

1.2566 

.4 

15.2053!    13.8230  ii      .4  !  55.4177  !  26.3894 

.5 

.19635 

1.5708 

.5 

15.9043 

14.1372  !:      .5;  56.7450     26.7035 

.6 

.28274 

1.8850 

.6 

16.6190 

14.4513  :i      .6|  58.0880  i  27.0177 

.7 

.38485 

2.1991 

.7 

17.3494 

14.7655  ii      .71  59.4468     27.3319 

.8 

.50266 

2.5133 

.8 

18.0956 

15.0796  !       .8    60.8212  I  27.6460 

.9 

.63617 

2.8274 

.9 

18.8574 

15.3938 

.9 

62.2114  !  27.9602 

1.0 

0.7854 

3.1416 

5.0 

19.6350 

15.7080 

9.0 

63.6173 

28.2743 

.1 

.9503 

3.4558 

.1 

20.4282 

16.0221 

.1    65.0388 

28.5885 

.2 

1.1310 

3.7699 

.2 

21.2372 

16.3363 

.2    66.4761 

28.9027 

.3 

1.3273 

4.0841 

.3 

22.0618  !    16.6504  !|      .3    67.9291  i  29  2168 

.4 

1.5394 

4.3982 

.4 

22.9022  ]    16.9646  ;!      .4    69.3978     29^5310 

.5 

1.7671 

4.7124 

.5 

23.7583  i    17.2788  i|      .5    70.8822  i  29  8451 

.6 

2.0106 

5.0265 

.6 

24.6301      17.5929  ;|      .6    72.3823  !  30.1593 

.7 

2.2698 

5.3407 

.7 

25.5176      17.9071  !,      .7    73.8981  j  30.4734 

.8 

2.5447 

5.6549 

.8 

26.4208      18.2212         .8  1  75.4296  !  30  7876 

.9 

2.8353 

5.9690 

.9 

27.3397 

18.5354 

.9 

76.9769 

31.1018 

2.0 

3.1416 

6.2832 

6.0 

28.2743 

18.8496 

10.0 

78.5398 

31.4159 

.1 

3.4636 

6.5973 

.1 

29.2247 

19.1637 

.1 

80.1185 

31.7301 

.2 

3.8013 

6.9115 

.2 

30.1907      19.4779         .2    81.7128 

32.0442 

.3 

4.1548 

7.2257 

.3    31.1725  1    19.7920  :       .3    83.3229 

32.3584 

.4 

4.5239 

7.5398 

.4    32.1699  i    20.1062  !       .4  !  84.9487 

32.6726 

5 

4.9087 

7.8540 

.5 

33.1831  i    20.4204  |       .5    86.5901  i  32.9867 

!e 

5.3093 

8.1681 

.6 

34.2119  I    20.7345  i       .6    88.2473  i  33.3009 

.7 

5.7256 

8.4823 

.7 

35.2565  :    21.0487  j!      .7189.9202     33.6150 

.8 

6.1575 

8.7965 

.8 

36.3168      21.3628         .8  1  91.6088     33.9292 

.9 

6.6052 

9.1106 

.9 

37.3928 

21.6770 

.9 

93.3132     34.2134 

3.0 

7.0686 

9.4248 

7.0 

38.4845 

21.9911  i   11.0    95.0332  !  34.5575 

.1 

7.5477 

9.7389 

.1  j  39.5919  '    22.3053  II      .1  1  96.7689     34.8717 

.2 

8.0425 

10.0531 

.2,  40.7150  I    22.6195    ;      .2  :  98.5203     35.1858 

3 

8.5530 

.  10.3673 

.3141.8539;    22.9336;,      .3100.2875,35.5000 

.4 

9.0792 

10.6814 

.4!  43.0084  •   23.2478  ,i      .4102.0703  !  35.8142 

g 

9.6211 

10.9956 

.5    44.1786      23.5619!       .5  103.8689  i  36.1283 

!e 

10.1788 

11.3097 

.6 

45.3646      23.8761         .6  105.6832  i  36.4425 

7 

10.7521 

11.6239 

.7 

46.5663 

24.1903         .7  107.5132     36.7566 

!s 

11:3411 

11.9381 

.8 

47.7836 

24  .  5044    !      .  8  109  .  3588     37  .  0708 

.9 

11.9459 

12.2522 

.9 

49.0167 

24.8186         .9 

111.2202 

37.3850 

ITS   PREPARATION   AND  USES  75 

AREAS  AND  CIRCUMFERENCES  OF 
CIRCLES. 


i 

Jrea. 

Circum- 
ference. 

i 

Area. 

Circum- 
ference. 

b 

Area. 

Circum- 
ference. 

12.0 

113.0973 

37.6991 

16.0 

201.0619 

50.2655 

20.0 

314.1593 

62.8319 

.1 

114.9901 

38.0133         .1  i  203.5831;    50.5796    |      .1 

317.3087 

63.1460 

.2 

116.8987 

38.3274         .2    206.1199    50.8938    !      .2 

320.4739 

63.4602 

.3 

118.8229 

38.6416:-      .3    208.6724    51.2080    '••      .3    323.654763.7743 

.4 

120.7628 

38.9557  i       .4    211.2407    51.5221    ,      .4  ;  326.8513!  64.0885 

.5 

122.7185 

39.2699         .5:213.8246    51.8363         .5    330.  0636J  64.4026 

.6 

124.6898 

39.5841         .6    216.4243    52.1504    ;      .6  !  333.  29l6i  64.7168 

.7 

126.6769 

39.8982 

.7    219.0397    52.4646  i       .7 

336.5353  65.0310 

.8 

128.6796 

40.2124 

.8 

221.6708 

52.7788 

.8 

339.7947 

65.3451 

9 

130.6981 

40.5265 

.9 

224.3176 

53.0929 

.9 

343.0698 

65.6593 

13.0 

132.7323 

40.8407 

17.0    226.9801    53.4071  1   21.0 

346.4606 

65.9734 

.1 

134.7822 

41.1549  ;       .1  1  229.6583    53.7212  i       .1    349.6671 

66.2876 

.2 

136.8478 

41.4690  i 

.2    232.3522    54.0354         .2    352.9894 

66.6018 

.3 

138.9291 

41.7832  : 

.3    235.0618    54.3496         .3    356.3273 

66.9159 

.4 

141.0261 

42.  0973  j!      .4:237.7871    54.6637    !      .41359.6809 

67.2301 

.5 

143.1388 

42.4115 

.5    240.5282    54.9779         .5  :  363.0503 

67.5442 

.6 

145.2672 

42.7257  i 

.6    243.2849    55.2920  j       .6    366.4354  67.8584 

\7 

147.4114 

43.0398 

.7    246.0574    55.6062         .7  i  369.8361'  68.1726 

.8 

149.5712 

43.3540 

.8  !  248.8456    55.9203         .8  i  373.2526 

68.4867 

.9 

151.7468    43.6681 

.9 

251.6494 

56.2345 

.9 

376.6848 

68.8009 

14.0 

153.9380 

43.9823 

18.0 

254.4690 

56.5486 

22.0 

380.1327  69.1150 

.3 

156.1450 

44.2965 

.1 

257.3043    56.8628 

.1 

383.5963  69.4992 

.2 

158.3677 

44.6106 

.2    260.1553:    57.1770 

.2  1  387.0756  69.7434 

.3 

160.6061 

44.9248         .3|263.0220    57.4911:1      .3  i  390.5707 

70.0575 

.4 

162.8602 

45.2389  i       .4  '  265.9044    57.8053 

.4 

394.0814 

70.3717 

.5 

165.1300 

45.5531         .5    268.8025    58.1195 

5 

397.6078  70.6858 

.6 

167.4155 

45.8673         .6    271.7164    58.4336 

.61  401.15005  71.0000 

.7 

169.7167 

46.1814  M      .71274.6459    58.7478 

.7    404.70781  71.3142 

.8,  172.0336;    46.4956 
.91  174.3662    46.8097 

.8 
.9 

277.5911 
280.5521 

59.0619 
59.3761 

.8 
.9 

408.2814  71.6283 
411.8707  71.9425 

15.  C 

176.7146    47.1239 

19.0 

283.5287 

59.6903 

23.0 

415.4756  72.2566 

.1 

179.0786 

,    47.4380 

.1    286.5211:    60.0044         .1  1  419.0963!  72.5708 

| 

181.4584 

47.7522    i      .2:289.5292    60.3186         .2  i  422.7327  72.8849 

183.853S 

|    48.06641;      .3    292.5530    60.6327         .3    426.384873.1991 

.< 

186.265C 

48.3805         .4  i  295.5925    60.9469    I      .4    430.0526  73.5133 

P 

188.6919 

48.6947 

.5  ;  298.6477    61.2611  ;       .5    433.7361  73.8274 

!< 

191.134E 

49.0088 

.6'301.7186    61.5752         .6  '  437.4354  74.1416 

j 

193.5928 

49.3230 

.7    304.8052    61.8894 

.7    441.1503  74.4557 

.1 

196.0668 

49.6372 

.8 

307.9075J    62.2035 

.8 

444.880$ 

74.7699 

j 

198.5565    49.9513 

.9 

311.0255    62.5177 

.9 

448.627C 

75.0841 

| 

76  CREOSOTED   TIMBER 

AREAS  AND  CIRCUMFERENCES  OF 
CIRCLES. 


j 

Area. 

Circum- 
ference. 

| 

Area. 

Oircum- 
ference. 

j 

Area, 

Circum- 
ference. 

24.0 

452.3893 

75.3982 

28.0 

615.7522 

87.9646 

32.0 

804.24/7 

100.5310 

.1 

456.1671  75.7124  ,i   .1:620.1582!  88.2788 

.1 

809.2821 

100.8451 

A 

459.9606!  76.0265  '   .2:624.5800!  88.5929    .2 

814.3322 

101.1593 

463.7698;  76.3407    .3  629.0175!  88.9071  i   .3 

819.3980 

101.4734 

'.4 

467.5947  76.6549 

.41633.4707!  89.2212  !   .4  824.4796 

101.7876 

5 

471.4352!  76.9690 

.5  i  637.9397!  89.5354  !   .5  829.5768 

102.1018 

!e 

475.2916J  77.2832 

.6  i  642.4243!  89.8495    .6 

834.6898 

102.4159 

.7 

479.1636;  77.5973 

.7  !  646.9246 

90.1637 

.7 

839.8185 

102.7301 

.8 

483.0513!  77.9115 

.8 

651.4407 

90.4779 

.8 

844.9628 

103.0442 

c 

486.9547 

78.2257 

.9 

655.9724 

90.7920 

.9 

850.1229 

103.3584 

25.0 

490.8739 

78.5398 

29.0 

660.5199 

91.1062 

33.0 

855.2986 

103.6726 

.1 

494.8087 

78.8540 

.1 

665.0830 

91.4203 

.1 

860.4902 

103.9867 

.2 

498.7592 

79.1681 

.2 

669.6619  91.7345 

.2 

865.6973 

104.3009 

502.7255 

79.4823 

.3  !  674.2565  92.0487 

.3 

870.9202 

104.6150 

[4 

506.7075 

79.7965 

.4!  678.8668^  92.3628 

.4 

876.1588 

104.9292 

5 

510.7052 

80.1106 

.5  i  683.4928  92.6770 

.5 

881.4131 

105.2434 

'l 

514.7185  80.4248 

!6  688.1345 

92.9911 

.6 

886.6831 

105.5575 

.7 

518.7476  80.7389 

.7  !  692.7919 

93.3053 

.7 

891.9688 

105.8717 

.8 
.9 

522.7924J  81.0531 
526.8529  81.3672 

.8 
.9 

697.4650 
702.1538 

93.6195 
93.9336 

.8 
.9 

897.2703 
902.5874 

106.1858 
106.5000 

26.0 

530.9292  81.6814 

30.0 

706.8583 

94.2478 

34.0 

907.9203 

106.8142 

.1 

535.0211!  81.9956 

.1 

711.5786 

94.5619 

.1 

913.2688 

107.1283 

.2 

539.1287:  82.3097 

.2  716.3145 

94.8761 

.2 

918.6331 

107.4425 

.3 

543.2521!  82.6239 

.3  721.0662 

95.1903 

.3 

924.0131 

107.7566 

.4 

547.3911  82.9380 

.4  1  725.8336 

95.5044 

.4 

929.4088 

108.0708 

.5 

551.5459i  83.2522 

.5 

730.6167 

95.8186 

.5 

934.8202 

108.3849 

.6 

555.7163!  83.5664 

.6 

735.4154 

96.1327 

.6 

940.2473 

108.6991 

.7 

559.9025  83.8805 

.7 

740.2299 

96.4469 

.7 

945.6901 

109.0133 

.8 

564.1044 

84.1947 

.8 

745.0601 

96.7611 

.8 

951.1486 

109.3274 

.9 

568.3220 

84.5088 

.9 

749.9060 

97.0752 

.9 

956.6228 

109.6416 

27.0 

572.5553 

84.8230 

31.0 

754.7676 

97.3894 

35.0 

962.1128 

109.9557 

.1 

576.8043 

85.1372 

.1  759.64501  97.7035 

.1 

967.6184 

110.2699 

.2 

581.0690!  85.4513 

.21  764.5380  98.0177    .2 

973.1397 

110.5841 

.3 

585.3494  85.7655 

.3  !  769.4467 

98.3319 

.3 

978.6768 

110.8982 

.4 

589.6455  86.0796 

.4  774.3712 

98.6460 

.4 

984.2296 

111.2124 

5 

593.95741  86.3938 

.5 

779.3113 

98.9602 

.5 

989.7980 

111.5265 

'.6 

598.2849!  86.7080 

.6 

784.2672  99.2743 

.6 

995.3822 

111.8407 

.7 

602.6282  87.0221 

.7 

789.2388  99.5885 

.7 

1000.9821 

112.1549 

.8 

606.98711  87.3363 

.8 

794.2260!  99.9026 

g 

1006.5977 

112.4690 

.9 

611.3618 

87.6504 

.9 

799.2290  100.2168 

!9 

1012.2290 

112.7832 

ITS   PREPARATION   AND   USES 

AREAS  AND  CIRCUMFERENCES  OF 
CIRCLES. 


77 


I 

Area. 

Circum- 
ference. 

s 

Area. 

Circum- 
ference. 

jj 

§ 

Area. 

Circum- 
ference. 

36.0 

1017.8760 

113.0960 

40.0 

1256.6371 

125.6637 

44.0 

1520.5308 

138.2301 

.11023.5387   113.4115         .11262.9281   125.9779';      .1  1527.4502;  138.5442 

.21029.2172  113.7257 

.2  1289.2348  126.2920  i  ;      .2  1534.3853i  138.8584 

.3;1034.9113   114.0398 

.3  1275.5573  126.6062  j  |      .3  1541.3360   139.1726 

.4i  1040.  6212   114.3540  j 

.4  1281.8955  126.9203   !      .4  1548.3025 

139.4867 

.51046.3467   114.6681  i 

.5  1288.2493   127.2345 

.5 

1555.2847 

139.8009 

.61052.0880  114.9823 

.6  1294.6189,  127.5487  t 

.6 

1562.2826 

140.1153 

.7 

1057.8449   115.2965 

.7 

1301.0042j  127.8628 

.7 

1569.2962 

140.4292 

.8 

1063.6176  115.6106 

.8 

1307.4052 

128.1770 

.8 

1576.3255 

140.7434 

.91069.4060 

115.9248 

.9 

1313.8219 

128.4911 

.9 

1583.3706 

141.0575 

37.01075.2101 

116.2389 

41.0 

1320.2543 

128.8053 

45.0 

1590.4313 

141.3717 

.111081.0299   116.5531 

.1  1326.7024 

129.1195 

.1 

1597.5077 

141.6858 

.211086.8654   116.8672 

.2  1333.1663 

129.4336 

.2 

1604.5999 

142.0000 

.  3  1092  .  7166!  117  .  1814  i       .  3  1339  .  6458  129  .  7478  j 

.3 

1611.7077   142.3142 

.41098.5835  117.4956         .41346.1410   130.0619 
.511104.4662   117.80971!      .51352.6520  130.3761 

.4 

.5 

1618.8313   142.6283 
1625.97051  142.9425 

.61110.36451  118.  1239  i!      .6  1359.1786  130.6903 

.6  11633.1255!  143.2566 

.711116.2786  118.4380 

.7  1365.72101  131.0044  1 

.7  1640.2962;  143.5708 

.8 

1122.2083   118.7522 

.8  1372.2791;  131.3186  ' 

.8,1647.4826  143.8849 

.9 

1128.1538 

119.0664 

.9 

1378.8529 

131.6327  | 

.9 

1654.6847 

144.1991 

38.0 

1134.1149 

119.3805 

42.0 

1385.4424 

131.9469 

46.0 

1661.9025 

144.5133 

.1 

1140.0918 

119.6947 

.1 

1392.0476 

132.2611 

.1 

1669.1660 

144.8274 

.2 

1146.0844 

120.0088 

.2 

1398.6685  132.5752; 

.2  1676.3853 

145.1416 

.3 

1152.0927 

120.3230 

.3 

1405.  3051  !  132.8894  i 

.3  1683.6502 

145.4557 

.4 

1158.1167 

120.6372 

.4 

1411.95741  133.2035  i 

.41690.9308  145.7699 

.5 

1164.1564!  120.9513 

.5 

1418.6254 

133.5177- 

.511696.22721  146.0841 

.6 

1170.21181  121.2655 

.6 

1425.3092 

133.8318 

.6!l705.5392  146.3982 

.7 

1176.28301  121.5796 

.7 

1432.0086 

134.1460 

.7  1712.8670  146.7124 

.8 

1182.3698 

121.8938 

.8 

1438.7238 

134.4602 

.8 

1720.2105 

147.0265 

.9 

1188.4724 

122.2080 

.9 

1445.4546 

134.7743 

.9 

1727.5697 

147.3407 

39.0 

1194.5906 

122.5221 

43.0 

1452.2012 

135.0885 

47.0 

1734.9445 

147.6550 

.11200.7246 

122.8363 

.1  1458.9635  135.  4026  !j      .1 

1742.3351 

147.9690 

.21206.8742;  123.1504 

.2  1465.7415  135.  7168  li      .2 

1749.7414 

148.2832 

.31213.0390  123.4646        .3  1472.5352;  136.0310        .3 

1757.1635 

148.5973 

.4J1219.2207   123.7788         .4  J1479.3446  136.3451  ' 

.4  1764.6012'  148.9115 

.5 

1225.4175  124.0929 

.5  1486.1697  136.6593 

.51772.0546   149.2257 

.6 

1231.6300  124.4071 

.6  1493.0105:  136.9734         .6 

1779.5237 

149.5398 

.7 

1237.8582 

124.7212 

.7 

1499.8670,  137.2876 

.7 

1787.0086 

149.8540 

.8 

1244.1021 

125.0354 

.8 

1506.7393   137.6018 

.8 

1794.5091 

150.1681 

.9 

1250.3617 

125.3495 

.9 

1513.6272 

137.9159 

.9 

1802.0254 

150.4823 

78  CREOSOTED   TIMBER 

AREAS  AND  CIRCUMFERENCES  OF 
CIRCLES. 


Diameter. 

Area. 

Circum- 
ference. 

1 

Area. 

Circum- 
ference. 

1 

Area. 

Circum- 
ference. 

48.0 

1809.5974 

150.7964 

52.0 

2123.7166 

163.3628 

56.0 

2463.0086 

175.9292 

.1 

1817.1050 

151.1106 

.1  2131.8926 

163.6770 

.1 

2471.8130 

176.2433 

.2 

1824.6684  151.4248 

.2  J2140.0843 

163.9911 

.2 

2480.6330 

176.5575 

.3 

1832.2475^  151.7389  1      .3  12148.2917 

164.3053 

.3 

2489.4687 

176.8717 

.4 

1839.8423  152.0531  '       .4  2156.5149 

164.6195 

.4 

2498.3201 

177.1858 

5 

1847.4528,  152.  3672  i,      .5  2164.7537 

164.9336 

.5 

2507.1873 

177.5000 

!e 

1855  .  07901  152  .  6814         .  6  2173  .  0082 

165.2479 

.6 

2516.0701 

177.8141 

.7 

1862.7210!  152.9956  1      ,7i2181.2785 

165.5619        .7 

2524.9687 

178.1283 

.8 

1870.3786 

153.  3097  il      .812189.5644 

165.8761         .8 

2533.8830 

178.4425 

.9 

1878.0519 

153.6239 

.9  2197.8661 

166.1903 

.9 

2542.8129 

178.7566 

49.0 

1885.7409 

153.9380 

53.0 

2206.1834 

166.5044 

57.0 

2551.7586 

179.0708 

.1 

1893.4457 

154.2522 

.1  2214.5165 

166.8186 

.1 

2560.7200 

179.3849 

.2 

1901.1662 

154.5664 

.2  12222.8653 

167.1327 

.2 

2569.6971 

179.6991 

.3 

1908  .  9024i  154  .  8805  |      .  3  2231  .  2298 

167.4469  1      .3 

2578.6899 

180.0333 

.4 
.5 

1916.6543)  155.1947  :       .4  ,2239.6100 
1924.4218  155.5088         .52248.0059 

167.7610  i      .4J2587.6985 
168.0752   1      .512596.7227 

180.3274 
180.6416 

.6 

1932.2051 

155.8230::      .62256.4175 

168.3894  !       .6 

2605.7626 

180.9557 

.7 

1940.0042 

156.1372!!      .7  2264.8448 

168.7035  ! 

.7 

2614.8183 

181.2699 

.8 

1947.8189 

156.  4513  !i      .8  2273.2879 

169.0177 

.8 

2623.8896 

181.5841 

.9 

1955.6493 

156.7655 

.9 

2281.7466 

169.3318 

.9 

2632.4767 

181.8982 

50.0 

1963.4954 

157.0796 

54.0 

2290.2210 

169.6460 

58.0 

2642.0794 

182.2124 

.1 

1971.3572 

157.3938 

.1  2298.7112 

169.9602 

.1 

2651.1979 

182.5265 

.2 

1979.2348 

157.7080!       .2  2307.2171 

170.2743 

.2 

2660.3321 

182.8407 

.3 

1987.1280;  158.0221  i       .32315.7386 

170.58851       .3 

2669.4820 

183.1549 

.4 

1995  .  0370!  158  .  3363  '      .  4  2324  .  2759 

170.9026  ! 

.4 

2678.6476 

183.4690 

.5 

2002.9617!  158.6504         .52332.8289 

171.2168  I      .5 

2687.8289 

183.7832 

.6 

2010.9020J  158.9646  i  i      .6  ;2341.3976 

171.5310  i      .6 

2697.0259 

184.0973 

.7 

2018.8581   159.2787  i       .7  2349.9820 

171.8451         .7 

2706.2386 

184.4115 

.8 

2026.8299  159.5929 

.8  J2358.5821 

172.1593         .8 

2715.4670 

184.7256 

.9 

2034.8174  159.9071 

.9  2367.1979 

172.4735         .9 

2724.7112 

185.0398 

51.0 

2042.8206  160.2212     55.02375.8294 

172.7876     59.0 

2733.9710 

185.3540 

.1 

2050.8395;  160.5354         .1  2384.4767 

173.10171       .1 

2743.2466 

185.6681 

.2 

2058.  8742|  160.8495         .22393.1396 

173.4159         .2 

2752.5378 

185.9823 

.3 

2066.9245  161.1637  !       .3  2401.8183 

173.7301         .3 

2761.8448 

186.2964 

.42074.9905  161.4779         .4  2410.5126 

174.04421       .4 

2771.1675 

186.6106 

.512083.0723;  161.  7920  |       .5  2419.2227 
.6  2091.1697  162.1062         .6  2427.  b485 

174.3584         .5  i  2780.  5058 
174.6726i       .612789.2599 

186.9248 
187,2389 

.72099.2829  162.4203         .7  2436.6899 

174.9867  !       .7 

2799.2297 

187.5531 

.82107.4118  162.7345  ! 

.8  2445.4471 

175.3009  1       .8 

2808.6152 

187.8672 

.92115.5563 

163.0487 

.9 

2454.2200 

175.6150 

.9 

2818.0165 

188.1814 

ITS   PREPARATION   AND  USES  79 

AREAS  AND  CIRCUMFERENCES  OF 
CIRCLES. 


1 

Area. 

Circum- 
ference. 

| 

Area. 

Circum- 
ference. 

j 

Area. 

Circum- 
ference. 

60.0 

2827.4334 

188.4956 

64.0 

3216.9909 

201.0620 

68.0 

3631.6811 

213.6283 

.1 

2836.8660 

188.809711      .1 

3227.0518 

201.  3767  jl      .1 

3642.3704 

213.9425 

.2 

2846.3844 

189.  1239^       .2 

3237.1285 

201.6902         .2 

3653.0754 

214.2566 

.3 

2855.7784 

189.4380!       .3 

3247.2222 

202.00441       .3 

3663.7960 

214.5708 

.4 

2865.2582 

189.7522!       .4 

3257.3289 

202.3186!       .4 

3674.5324 

214.8849 

.5 

2874.7536 

190.  0664  i       .5 

3267.4527 

202.6327!       .5 

3685.2845  215.1991 

.6 

2884.2648 

190.  3805  j       .6 

3277.5922 

202.  9469  J       .6 

3696.0523,  215.5133 

.7 

2893.7917 

190.6947  !       .7 

3287.7474 

203.2610  1       .7 

3706.8359  215.8274 

.8 

2903.3343 

191.0088  !      .8 

3297.9183 

203.5752         .8 

3717.63511  216.1416 

.9 

2912.8926 

191.3230         .9 

3308.1049 

203.8894         .9 

3728.4500 

216.4556 

61.02922.4666 

191.6372   1  65.013318.3072 

204.3025'^  69.0 

3739.2807 

216.7699 

.1 

2932.0563 

191.9513         .1 

3328.5223 

204.5176   !      .1 

3750.1270 

217.0841 

.2 

2941.6617 

192.2655         .2 

3338.7590 

204.8318         .2 

3760.9891 

217.3982 

.3 

2951.2828 

192.5796         .3 

3349.0085 

205.14601       .3 

3771.8668 

217.7124 

.4 

2960.9197 

192.8938  !       .4 

3359.2736 

205.4602         .4 

3782.7603 

218.0265 

.5 

2970.5722 

193.70291!      .5 

3369.5545 

205.77431       .5 

3793.6695 

218.3407 

.6 

2980.2405 

193.5221         .6 

3379.8510 

206.08851       .6 

3804.5944 

218.6548 

.7 

2989.9244 

193.8363         .7 

3290.1633 

206.4026         .7 

3815.5350|  218.9690 

.8 

2999.6241 

194.1504   |      .8 

3400.4913 

206.7168         .8 

3826.4913!  219.2832 

.9;3009.3395 

•194.4646 

.9 

3410.8350 

207.  0310  i       .9 

3837.4633 

219.5973 

62.0 

3019.0705 

194.7787 

66.0 

3421.1944 

207.3451     70.0 

3848.4510 

219.9115 

.1 

3028.8173 

195.0929 

.1 

3431.5695 

207.6593!       .1 

3859.4544 

220.2256 

.2 

3038.5798 

195.4071  1      .2 

3441.9603 

207.9734         .2 

3870.4736  220.5398 

.3 

3048.3580 

195.7212         .3 

3452.3669 

208.2876         .3 

3881.5084;  220.8540 

.4 

3058.1520 

196.0354         .4 

3462.7891 

208.6017         .4 

3892.5590  221.1681 

.5 

3067.9616 

196.3495         .5 

3473.2270 

208.9159         .5 

3903.6252i  221.4823 

.6 

3077.7869 

196.6637         .6 

3483.6807 

209.2301         .6 

3914.7072  221.7964 

.7 

3087.6279 

196.9779         .7 

3494.1500 

209.5442   1      .7 

3925.8049:  222.1106 

.83097.4847 
.9,3107.3571 

197.2920 
197.6062 

.8 
.9 

3504.6351 
3515.1359 

209.8584 
210.1725 

.8 
.9 

3936.9182 
,3948.0473 

222.4248 
222.7389 

63.o'3117.2453 

197.9203 

67.0 

3525.6524 

210.4867 

71.0  '3959.  1921 

223.0531 

.1 

3127.1492 

198.2345   1      .1 

3536.1845 

210.8009  i      .1 

3970.3526  223.3672 

.2 

3137.0688 

198.5847         .2 

3546.7324 

211.1150         .2 

3981.5289  223.6814 

.3 

3147.0040 

198.8628         .3 

3557.2960 

211.4292         .3 

3992.7208  223.9956 

.4 

3156.9550 

199.1770         .4 

3567.8754 

211.7433         .4 

4003.9284  224.3097 

.5 

3166.9217 

199.4911         .5 

3578.4704 

212.0575         .5 

4015.1518  224.6239 

.6 

3176.9043 

199.8053  j       .6 

3589.0811 

212.  3717  i       .6 

4026.3908  224.9380 

.7 

3186.9023 

200.1195         .7 

3599.7075 

212.6858         .7 

4037.6456:  225.2522 

.8 

3196.9161 

200.  4336  :       .8 

3610.3497 

213.0000         .8 

4048.9160  225.5664 

.93206.9456  200.747811      .9 

i        \         \\ 

3621.0075 

213.3141         .9 

4060.2022 

225.8805 

80  CREOSOTED   TIMBER 

AREAS  AND  CIRCUMFERENCES  OF 
CIRCLES. 


i 

Area. 

Circum- 
ference. 

5 

Area. 

Circum- 
ference. 

K 

s 

Area. 

Circum- 
ference. 

72.0 

4071.5041 

226.1947 

76.0 

4536.4598 

238.7610 

80.0 

5026.5482 

251.3274 

.1 

4082.8217 

226.5088  1      .1 

4548.4051 

239.0752         .1 

5039.1229 

251.6416 

.2 

4094.1550 

226.8230         .2 

4560.3673 

239.3894         .2 

5051.7124 

251.9557 

.3 

4105.5040 

227.1371         .3 

4572.3446 

239.7035!       .3 

5064.3180 

252.2699 

.4 

4116.8687 

227.4513         .4 

4584.3377 

240.0177         .4 

5076.9394 

252.5840 

5 

4128.2491 

227.7655         .5 

4596.3464 

240.3318         .5 

5089.5764 

252.8982 

!e 

4139.6452 

228.0796         .6 

4608.3708 

240.6460i!      .6 

5102.2292 

253.2124 

.7 

4151.0571 

228.3938  1       .7 

4620.4110 

240.9602         .7 

5114.8977 

253.5265 

.8 

4162.4846 

228.7079         .8 

4632.4669 

241.2743         .8 

5127.5819 

253.8407 

.9 

4173.9279 

229.0221         .9 

4644.5384 

241.5885         .9 

5140.2818 

254.1548 

73.0 

4185.3868 

229.3363     77.0 

4656.6257 

241.9026 

81.0 

5152.9973 

254.4690 

.1 

4196.8615 

229.6504]       .1 

4668.7287 

242.2168  ; 

.1 

5165.7287 

254.7832 

.24208.3519 

229.9646         .2 

4680.8474 

242.5310 

.2 

5178.4757 

255.0973 

.34219.8579 

230.2787         .3 

4692.9818 

242.8451 

3 

5191.2384 

255.4115 

.4 

4231.3797 

230.5929         .4 

4705.1319 

243.1592  : 

.4 

5204.0168 

255.7256 

.5 

4242.9172 

230.9071         .5 

4717.2977 

243.4734 

.5 

5216.8110 

256.0398 

.6 

4254.4704 

231.2212         .6 

4729.4792 

243.7876 

.6 

5229.6208 

256.3540 

.7 

4266.0394 

231.5354         .7 

4741.6765 

244.1017 

.7 

5242.4463 

256.6681 

.8 

4277.6240 

231.8495         .8 

4753.8894 

244.4159  ! 

8 

5255.2876 

256.9823 

.9 

4289.2243 

232.1637 

.9 

4767.1181 

244.7301 

.9  5268.1446 

257.2966 

74.0 

4300.8403 

232.4779 

78.0 

4778.3624 

245.0442 

82.0 

5281.0173 

257.6106 

.1 

4312.4721 

232.7920 

.1 

4790.6225 

245.3580  | 

.1 

5293.9056 

257.9247 

.24324.1195 

233.1062         .2 

4802.8983 

245.6725 

.2 

5306.8097 

258.2389 

.314335.7827 

233.4203         .3 

4815.1897 

245.9867 

.3 

5319.7295 

258.5531 

.44347.4616 

233.7345         .4 

4827.4969 

246.3009 

.4 

5332.6650 

258.8672 

.54359.1562 

234.0487         .5 

4839.8198 

246.6150 

.5 

5345.6162 

259.1814 

.64370.8664 

234.  3628  j!      .6 

4852.1584 

246.9292 

5358.5832 

259.4956 

.74382.5924 

234.6770 

.7 

.4864.5128 

247.?433 

7 

5371.5658 

259.8097 

.814394.3341 

234.9911 

.8 

14876.8828 

247.5575 

.8 

5384.5641 

;  260.1239 

.94406.0916 

235.3053   1      .9 

4889.26851  247.8717 

.9 

5397.5782 

260.4380 

75.04417.8647 

235.6194     79.0 

4901.6699 

248.1858 

83.0 

5410.607S 

260.7522 

.114429.6535 

235.9336         .1 

J4914.0871 

248.50001       .1 

5423.6534 

1  261.0663 

.2:4441.458C 

236.2478         .2 

4926.5199 

248.8141  '       .2 

5436.7146 

261.3805 

.3:4453.2783 

236.5619         .3 

4938.9685 

249.1283         .3 

5449.7915 

261.6947 

.44465.1142 

236.8761         .4 

i4951.432S 

249.4425 

.4 

5462.  884C 

262.0088 

.54476.965S 

237.1902         .5 

!  4963.  9127 

249.7566 

.5 

5475.  992S 

262.3230 

.61  4488.  8332 

237.5044         .6 

,4976.4084 

250.0708 

.6 

5489.116C 

262.6371 

.714600.7162 

237.8186         .7 

4988.9198 

250.3850 

.7 

,5502.2561 

262.9513 

.8:4512.6151  238.1327 
.94524.52961  238.4469 

.8  5001.4469  250.6991         .8 
.915013.9897  251.  0133  ||      .9 

5515.4115  263.2655 
5528.5826  263.5796 

1 

1 

II 

ITS  PREPARATION  AND   USES  81 

AREAS  AND  CIRCUMFERENCES  OF 
CIRCLES. 


1 

Area. 

Circum- 
ference, 

fc 

Area. 

Circum- 
ference. 

Jj 

Area. 

Circum- 
ference. 

84.0 

5541.7694 

263.8938 

88.0 

6082.1234 

276.4602 

92.0 

6647.6101 

289.0265 

.1 

5554.9720 

264.2079         .1  :6095.9542  276.7743  :  1      .1  6662.0692  289.3407 

.2 

5568.1902 

264.5221 

.2  6109.  80081  277.0885;!      .2  6676.5441!  289.6548 

.35581.4242 
.45594.6739 

264.8363 
265.1514 

A 

6123.6631  277.4026         .3  6691.0347j  289.9690 
6137.5411  277.7168         .4  6705.54101  290.2832 

.5 

5607.9392 

265.4646 

.5 

6151.4348  278.0309 

.5  6720.0630  290.5973 

.6 

5621.2203 

265.7787 

.6 

6165.3442  278.3451]  I      .6  |6734.6008i  290.9115 

.7 

5634.5171 

266.0929 

.7 

6179.2693  278.6593 

.7 

6749.1542 

291.2256 

.8 

5647  8296 

266.4071 

.8  6193.2101  278.9740 

.8 

6763.7233 

291.5398 

.9,5661.1578 

266.7212 

.9  6207.1666  279.2876 

.9 

6778.3282 

291.8540 

85.05674.5017 

267.0374 

89.0 

6221.1389  279.6017 

93.0 

6792.9087 

292.1681 

.1 

5687.8614 

267.3495         .16235.1268279.9159 

.1 

6807.5250 

292.4823 

.2 

5701.2367 

267.6637         .2  6249.1304  280.2301 

.2  6822.1569 

292.7964 

.3 

5714.6277 

267.9779         .36263.1498280.5442         .36836.8046 

293.1106 

.4 

5728.0345 

268.2920:      .4  6277.18491  280.  8584  j|      !  4  6851  !  4680 

293.4248 

.5 

5741.4569 

268.6062:      .5  6291.2356'  281.1725  '!      .6  6866.1471 

293.7389 

.65754.8951 
.7J5768.3490 

268.9203 
269.2345  1 

.6  ;6305.3021  281.4867  !  i      .6  6880.8419  294.0531 
.7  16319.38431  281.8009  i  i      .7  6895.55241  294.3672 

.8 

5781.8185 

269.5486 

.8  J6333.4822  282.1150         .8  6910.2786!  294.6814 

.9 

5795.3038 

269.8628 

.9 

6347.5958 

282.4292 

.9  6925.0205  294.9956 

86.0 
.1 

5808.8048 
5822.3215 

270.1770 
270.4911 

90.0 
.1 

6361.7251 
6375.8701 

282.7433 

283.0575 

94.0  6939.7782  295.3097 
.1  16954.  5515;  295.6239 

.25835.8539 
.36849.4020 

270.8053 
271.1194 

.2  6390.0309  283.3717 
.3  6404.20731  283.6858 

.2  6969.3106J  295.9380 
.3  6984.14531  296.2522 

.4 

5862.9659 

271.4336 

.4  6418.3995  284.0000 

.4  6998.9658 

296.5663 

.5 

5876.5454 

271.7478 

.516432.6073  284.3141 

.5 

7013.8019 

296.8805 

.6 

5890.1407 

272.0619 

.616446.8309  284.6283 

.6 

7028.6538 

297.1947 

.7 

5903.7516 

272.3761 

.7  6461.0701;  284.9425 

.7 

7043.5214 

297.5088 

.8 

5917.3783 

272.6902 

.8  6475.3251 

285.2566 

.8 

7058.4047 

297.8230 

.9 

5931.0206 

273.0044 

.9  6489.5958 

285.5708 

.9 

7073.3033 

298.1371 

87.05944.6787!  273.3186 
.  15958.  35251  273.6327 

91.0 
.1 

6503.8822 
6518.1843 

285.8849 
286.1991 

95.0 
.1 

7088.2184 
7103.1488 

298.4513 

298.7655 

.2 

5972.0420 

273.9469         .2  6532.5021  286.5133 

.2 

7118.1950  299.0796 

.3 

5985.7472 

274.2610         .316546.8356  286.8274 

.3 

7133.0568  299.3938 

.4 

5999.4681 

274  .  5752  I       .4  6561  .  1848  287  .  1416 

.4  7148.0343:  299.7079 

.5 

6013.2047 

274.8894         .5  :6575.5498:  287.4557 

.5  7163.0276  300.0221 

.66026.9570 
.76040.7250 

275  .  2035  1      .6  6589  .  9304  287  .  7699 
275.5177         .7  ;6604.3268  288.0840 

.6  17178.0366  300.3363 
.7  7193.0612  300.6504 

.86054.5088 
.96068.3082 

275.8318         .8 
276.1460         .9 

II 

6618.7388 
6633.1666 

288.3982 
288.7124 

.8  7208.1016  300.9646 
.9  7223.1577  301.2787 

82  CREOSOTED   TIMBER 

AREAS  AND  CIRCUMFERENCES  OF 
CIRCLES. 


V.' 

Area. 

Circum- 
ference. 

v! 

5 

Area. 

Circum- 
ference. 

k 

Area. 

Circum- 
ference. 

96.0 

7238.2295 

\                                             1                           I 
301.5929   :  97.  017389.  8113  304.73451   98.0,7542.9640  307.8761 

.1 

7253.3170 

301  .  9071   1      .1  7405  .  0559  305  .  0486  '       .  1  7558  .  3656  308  .  1902 

.2 

7268.4202 

302  .2212   i      .2  1  7420  .  3162  305  .  3628         .  2  7573  .  7830  308  .  5044 

.3 

7283.5391 

302  .  5354   i      .  3  7435  .  5922  305  .  6770   !      .  3  1  7589  .  2161  308  .  81  86 

.4 

7298.6737 

302.8405  ,      .47450.8839  305.9911         .4  7604.6648  309.1327 

.57313.8240 

303.1637         .57466.1913  306.3053 

.5  7620.1293  309.4469 

.67328.9901 

303  .  4779  !  !      .  6  7481  .  51  44  306  .  6194 

.6  7635.6095  309.7610 

.717344.1718 

303.7920;        .77496.8532  306.9336 

.77651.1054  310.0752 

.87359.3693 

304  .  1062          .8  7512  .  2078  307  .  2478 

.8  7666.6170  310.3894 

.97374.5824 

304.  4203  !!      .97527.5780  307.5619 

:      .9  7682.1444  310.7035 

99.07697.6893 

311.01771:100.0 

7853.9816  314.1593 

.17713.2461 

311.3318:! 

.2*7728.8206 

311.6460  i 

.37744.4107 

311.9602  !i 

.417760.0166,  312.2743  ,j 
.57775.6382'  312.5885   ! 

!6  7791.  2754 

312.9026 

.717806.9284 

313.2168  j 

.8J7822.5971 

313.5309 

.9 

7838.2815 

313.8451 

LENGTH  OF  CIRCULAR  ARCS. 


Deg. 

In  Terms  of  Radius. 

Min. 

In  Terms  of  Radius. 

Sec. 

In  Terms  of  Radius. 

1 

0.01745  32925  19943 

1 

0.00029  08882  08666 

1 

0.00000  48481  36811 

2 

.03490  65850  398871  2 

.00058  17764  17331 

2 

.00000  96962  73622 

3 

.05235  98775  59830 

3 

.00087  26646  25997 

3 

.00001  45444  10433 

4 

.06981  31700  79773  4 

.00116  35528  34663  i  4 

.00001  93925  47244 

5 

.08726  64625  99716j  5 

.00145  44410  43329:  5 

.00002  42406  84055 

6 

.10471  97551  19660'  6 

.00174  53292  519941  6 

.00002  90888  20867 

7 

.12217  30476  39603 

7 

.00203  62174  60660,  7 

.00003  39369  57678 

8 
9 

.13962  63401  59546  8 
.157079632679490  9 

.00232  71056  69326 
.00261  79938  77991 

8 
9 

.00003  87850  94489 
.00004  36332  31300 

To  ascertain  the  area  or  circumference  of  any  circle  whose  diameter  is 

a  whole  number  and  greater  than  100  and  less  than  1000.  Find  in  the  table 

e  gven  ameer,  ve  y  ;  e  area  corresponng  mupe  y  , 
and  the  circumference  corresponding  multiplied  by  10  will  be  the  area  and 
circumference,  respectively,  sought  for.  E.  g.,  wanted  the  area  and  circum- 
ference of  a  circle  whose  diameter  is  432.  Find  in  the  table  the  area  and 
circumference  of  a  circle  whose  diameter  is  43.2,  to  be  respectively  1465.7415 
and  135.7168;  the  area  and  circumference  of  the  given  circle  are  146,574.45 
and  1357.168,  respectively. 


ITS   PREPARATION  -AND   USES 


83 


FLOW  OF  STEAM  THROUGH  STRAIGHT 
PIPES. 


Initial  Gauge 
Pressure  in 
Pounds  per 
Square  Inch. 

Diameters  of  Pipes  in  Inches. 

\      1 

i* 

2 

2^ 

3 

4 

5 

6 

8 

Pounds  of  Steam  Carried  per  Minute  with  one  Pound  Loss 
of  Pressure  per  2W  Diameter  Length  of  Pipe. 

1. 

1.162.07 

5.70 

10.27 

15.4525.38  46.85 

77.30 

115.90 

211.4C 

10.  1.442.57  7.1012.7219.1531.45   58.05   95.80143.60262.00 

20.  1.703.02  8.3014.9422.4936.94  68.20112.60168.70307.80 

30.  1.913.40   9.4016.8425.3541.63  76.84126.90190.10346.80 

40.  2.103.7410.3018.5127.8745.77  84.49139.50209.00381.30 

50.  12.27  4.04 11.20  20.01 30.13  49.48   91.34 150.80  226.00  412.20 

60.  2.434.3211.9021.3832.1952.87   97.60161.10241.50440.50 

70.  |2.57  4.58 12.60  22.65  34.10  56.00 103.37 170.70  255.80  466.50 

80.  2.71  4.82 13.30  23.82  35.87  58.91 108.74 179.50  269.00  490.70 

90.  2.83  5.04 13.90  24.92  37.52  61.62 113.74 187.80  281.40  513.30 

100.  i2.95  5.25 14.50  25.96  39.07  64.18 118.47 195.60  293.10  534.60 

120.  13.16  5.63 15.50  27.85  41.93  68.87 127.12  209.90  314.50  573.70 

150.  3.45;6.14 17.00  30.37,45.72  75.09 138.61 228.80  343.00,625.50 


Diameter  of 
Pipe  in  Inches. 

* 

I 

* 

2 

* 

3 

4 

5 

6 

8 

Length  of  Pipe 

in  Diameters 
of  Equivalent    20 

25 

34 

41 

47 

52 

60 

66 

71 

79 

Resistance  of 
IGlobeValve. 

Ascertain  the  horse-power  of  any  size  pipe  appearing  in 
the  above  table,  by  doubling  the  pounds  of  steam  carried  by 
the  pipe  per  minute. 

Ascertain  the  amount  of  any  other  loss  of  pressure  by 
multiplying  the  tabular  figures,  for  the  size  pipe  in  question, 
by  the  square  root  of  the  tabular  loss,  for  the  size  pipe  in 
question. 

Ascertain  the  flow,  with  one  pound  loss  of  pressure,  for 
any  length  of  pipe  by  dividing  240  by  the  given  length,  in 
terms  of  the  diameter,  and  multiplying  the  square  root  of 
this  quotient  by  the  tabular  figures. 


84 


CREOSOTED   TIMBER 

CHIMNEYS. 


s. 

Height  of  Chimney  in  Feet. 

•8  . 

el 

CL? 

50 

60 

70 

80 

90 

100 

110 

125 

150 

175 

200 

^» 

H 

^2 

-S^ 
§  S 

'•£  s 

n 

S? 

Commercial  Horse-power. 

ir 

^ 
^ 

18 

23 

25 

27 

0.97 

1.77 

21 

35 

38 

41 

1.47 

2.41 

24 

49 

54 

58 

62 

2.08  i  3.14 

27 

65 

72  78  83 

2.78 

3.98 

30 

84 

92  100  107  113 

3.58 

4.91 

33 

115  125  133  141| 

4.47 

5.94 

36 

141  152  163  173  182 

5.47 

7.47 

39 

183  183!  196  208  219 

6.57  8.30 

42 

216;  231  245  258  271 

7.76  9.62 

48 

311  330  348  365  389 

10.44  12.57 

54 

363  427  449  472  503  551       113.51  15.90 

60 

505  539  565  593  632  692  748    16.98  19.64 

66 

658  694  728  776  849  918  98120.83  23.76 

72 

792  835  876  93410231105118125.08  28.27 

78 

:  9951038110712121310140029.73  '33.18 

84 

,1163  1214  1294  1418  1531  1637  34.76  38.48 

90 

1344  1415  1496  1639  1770  1893  40.19  44.18 

96 

1537 

1616 

1720 

1876 

2027 

2167 

46.01  50.27 

i 

lA 


H  =3.33  J£  i/ /i. 


£== 


H,  Horse-power  ;  h,  height  of  chimney,  in  feet ;  E,  effec- 
tive area,  and  A,  actual  area  in  square  feet;  D,  diameter  of 
circular  chimney,  in  inches.  The  above  table  and  formula 
are  based  on  the  assumption  that  an  average  consumption 
of  five  pounds  of  the  coal  used  per  hour  will  generate  one 
horse-power. 


ITS   PREPARATION   AND   USES 


85 


MEASURES. 

OF  LENGTH. 


Inches. 

Feet. 

Yards. 

Rods. 

Miles. 

63360 
198 
36 
12 
1 

5280: 
16.5 
3. 
1. 

1760. 
5.5 
1. 

320 

1 

1 

Sq.  Inches. 

Sq.  Feet. 

Sq.  Yards. 

Sq.  Hods. 

Acres. 

it 

1 

6272640 
39204 
1296 
144 

27878400. 
43560. 
272.25 
9. 
1. 

3097600. 
4840. 
30.25 
1. 

102400 
160 
1 

640 
1 

Pints,  i 

Quarts. 

Gallons. 

Pecks. 

Bushels. 

Cubic  Inches. 

64 
16 
8 
2 

1 

33 
8 
4 

1 

8 
2 
1 

4 

1 

1 

2150. 
537.6 
268.8 
67.2 
33.6 

LIQUID. 


Gills. 

Pints. 

Q«ar&. 

Gallons. 

Cubic  Inches. 

32 
8 
4 
1 

8 
2 

1 

4 
1 

1 

231. 

57.750 
28.875 
7.218 

Inches. 

.Fee/. 

Yards. 

Owtfc. 

Perches. 

46656 
1728 

27 
1 

1 

128Cu.Ft. 

25  Cu.  Ft. 

86 


CREOSOTED  TIMBER 
MEASURES. 

COMMERCIAL  WEIGHT. 


Ounces. 

Pounds. 

Owls. 

Tons. 

35840. 

2240. 

20. 

1. 

1792. 

112. 

1. 

16. 

1. 

SPECIAL  UNITS. 

One  palm,  3  inches. 
One  hand,  4  inches. 
One  span,  9  inches. 
One  fathom,  6  feet. 

One  cable  length,  720  feet,  120  fathoms. 
One  shot,  90  feet. 

One  knot,  nautical  mile,  6086.07  feet. 
One  league,  3  knots. 
One  section,  640  acres. 
One  square  acre,  208.71  feet  by  208.71  feet. 
One  circular  acre,  235.504  feet  diameter. 
British  Imperial  Dry  Measures  are  JQ^  U.  S.  measures  of 
the  same  name. 

A  heaped  bushel  is  1J-  times  a  struck  bushel. 
One  British  Imperial  gallon,  277.274  cubic  inches. 


BOSTON,  November  8, 1899. 
E.  A.  BUEI/L,  ESQ.,  President,  NORFOLK  CREOSOTING  COMPANY, 

17  Granby  Street,  Norfolk,  Va. 

Dear  Sir: — I  am  glad  to  say  that  in  filling  my  orders  for  large  amounts 
of  creosoted  material  during  the  last  three  years,  I  have  found  your  hand- 
ling of  the  business  very  satisfactory.  My  inspector's  reports  and  the  ap- 
pearance of  the  material  agree  in  representing  the  treatment  as  thoroughly 
and  honestly  done. 

I  have  great  confidence  in  the  endurance  of  the  timber  and  shall  be 
glad  to  offer  you  further  business  whenever  I  have  orders  to  place. 
Yours  truly, 

F.  P.  MclNTYRE,  Purchasing  Agent, 
Mexican  Central  Railway  Company,  Limited. 


ITS   PREPARATION   AND   USES 


87 


FRENCH    AND    ENGLISH    "WEIGHTS    AND 
MEASURES. 


Grains  per  Gramme 15.432  55 

Pounds  avoirdupois  per 
Kilo 2.20462 

Tons  per  tonne 984206 

Feet  per  metre 3.2808693 

Inches  per  millimetre...      .03937043 

Miles  per  kilo 621377 

Square  feet  per  square 
metre  107641 

Square  inch  per  square 
millimetre 00155003 

Cubic  feet  per  cubic  me- 
tre   35.3156 

Foot-pounds  per  kilo- 
gramme    7.23308 

Pounds  per  foot  per  kilo- 
gram metre 671963 

Pounds  per  square  foot 
per  kilogramme  per 
square  metre 204813 

Pounds  per  square  inch 
per  kilogramme  per 
square  metre 14.2231 

Pounds  per  cubic  foot 
per  kilogrammes  per 
cubic  metre 0062426 


Gramme  per  grain 0.064799 

Kilos  per  pound  avoirdu- 
pois   453593 

Tonnes  per  ton 1.01605 

Metres  per  foot 304797 

Millimetre  per  inch 25.39977 

Kilos  per  mile 1.60933 

Square  metres  per  square 

foot.. 092901 

Square  millimetres  per 

square  inch 645.148 

Cubic   metre   per  cubic 

foot 028316 

Kilogram  metre  per  foot 

per  pound 138254 

Kilogrammes  per  metre 

per'pounds  per  foot 1.48818 

Kilogrammes  per  square 

metre  per  pound  per 

square  foot 4.88252 

Kilogrammes  per  square 

millimetre  per  pounds 

per  square  inch 00073 

Kilogrammes  per  cubic 

metre  per  pounds  per 

cubic  foot 16.19 


PHYSICAL    AND    ELECTRICAL    UNITS. 

MASS. — Mass  is  the  measure  of  quantity  in  a  body  as  in- 
dicated' l>y  the  amount  offeree  requisite  for  a  given  amount 
of  motion  in  a  given  time  ;  i.  e.,  the  mass  of  any  body  is  the 
measure  of  its  inertia. 

WEIGHT. — Weight  is  the  measure  of  the  force  with  which 
any  body  is  impelled  toward  the  centre  of  the  earth. 

DYNE. — The  C.  G.  S.  Dyne  is  the  measure  of  a  force  which, 
applied  to  a  mass  of  one  gram  for  one  second  of  time, 
imparts  to  it  a  velocity  of  one  centimeter  per  second. 

ERG. — The  C.  G.  S.  Erg  is  the  unit  of  work,  and  in  con- 
sequence of  energy  also.  It  is  the  measure  of  the  work 


88  CREOSOTED   TIMBER 

done,  or  of  the  energy  consumed,  in  exerting  a  force  of  one 
dyne. 

AMPERE. — The  Ampere  is  the  unit  of  electrical  current 
strength,  and  is  the  current  strength  produced  by  an 
electromotive  force  of  one  volt  against  a  resistance  of  one 
Ohm. 

OHM. — The  Ohm  is  the  electrical  unit  of  resistance,  and  is 
the  resistance  offered  to  the  passage  of  an  unvarying  elec- 
trical current,  at  the  temperature  of  melting  ice,  by  a  column 
•    of  mercury,  14.4521   grams  in   mass,  of  a  constant  cross- 
sectional  area  and  1.063  centimeters  long. 

VOLT. — The  Volt  is  the  measure  of  electromotive  force, 
which,  applied  steadily  to  a  conductor  whose  resistance  is 
one  ohm,  will  produce  a  current  of  one  ampere. 

COULOMB. — The  Coulomb  is  the  unit  of  quantity,  and  is 
the  measure  of  the  amount  of  current  conveyed  by  one 
ampere  in  one  second  of  time. 

JOULE. — The  Joule  is  a  unit  of  electrical  energy,  and  is  the 
measure  of  the  work  done  in  maintaining  a  current  of  one 
ampere  against  a  resistance  of  one  ohm  for  one  second  of 
time. 

FARAD. — The  Farad  is  the  unit  of  capacity  of  a  condenser 
charged  to  a  potential  of  one  volt  with  one  coulomb. 

HENRY. — The  Henry  is  the  unit  of  electrical  self-induction, 
and  is  the  measure  of  the  self-induction  of  a  current  in 
which  the  variation  of  the  current,  of  one  ampere  per 
second,  induces  an  electromotive  force  of  one  volt. 

WATT. — The  Watt  is  the  unit  of  rate  of  work,  the  electro- 
motive force  being  one  volt  and  the  current  strength  one 
ampere. 

WEBER.— The  Weber,  C.  G.  S.,  is  the  unit  of  flux,  other- 
wise called  the  line  of  flux. 

GILBERT. — The  Gilbert  C.  G.  S.  unit  of  magnetomotive 
force.  It  is  produced  by  0.7958  ampere-turns. 

OERSTED. — The  C.  G.  S.  Oersted  is  the  unit  of  magnetic 
reluctance. 

GAUSS.— The  C.  G.  S.  Gauss  is  the  unit  of  flux-density,  i.e., 
one  weber  per  normal  square  centimeter. 


ITS   PREPARATION   AND   USES  89 

AMORTIZATION  TABLES. 

The  following  tables,  I  and  II,  are  based  on  the  well-known 
Fernow  Formulae  for  determining  the  equivalent  annual 
charge  due  to  an  initial  expenditure  made  now  and  recur- 
ring each  term  of  n  years,  and  for  determining  the  equiva- 
lent annual  charge  due  to  an  initial  expenditure  not  now 
occurring  but  first  becoming  necessary  at  the  end  of  n  years, 
and  then  recurring  at  the  end  of  each  term  of  n  years. 

For  Table  I  : 

TO1.0pn  X  O.Off 
r—  ^J.Op"  —  1 

For  Table  II  : 


_ 

—  1.0pn  —  1 

r  =  Equivalent  annual  charge. 
R  =  Initial  expenditure. 
p  -—  Rate  of  interest. 
n  =  Term  of  years. 

r,  the  equivalent  annual  charge,  is  found  from  the  table,  by 
multiplying  the  actual  expenditure,  in  cents,  by  the  amount 
found  under  the  required  period  of  years  and  for  the  desired 
interest  rate. 


WILMINGTON,  DEL.,  November  15, 1899. 
THE  NORFOLK  CREOSOTING  Co.,  Norfolk,  Va. 

Gentlemen :— We  desire  to  express  to  you  our  satisfaction  with  the 
manner  in  which  yen  have  always  handled  our  business.  The  ties,  timber 
and  piling  that  you  have  creosoted  for  us  have  given  the  best  of  results. 
We  firmly  believe  that  no  better  treatment,  or  more  effective  treatment, 
can  be  given  than  yours,  under  the  capable  supervision  of  Mr.  Christian. 
Very  truly  yours, 

BUSH  &  RAYNER, 
W  holesale  Lumber  Dealers. 


90 


S 

CREOSOTED 

EXPENDITURE  OF  ONE  CENT.  h3 

& 

FBI 

:R 

ro 

§  §  3  1 

o     o     o     o     o 

CD       O       O       O 

s 

d     d     d     d     o 

S 

CD        C--        CO        CD 

8 

d      d     d     d     d 

8 

8    §    §    i    3 

a 

in     CM     o>     co     o 

S        CD        CD        §        3 

d     d     d     d     d 

d     d     d     d     d 

S3 

§    §    1    §    8 

00000 

00000 

s 

d     d     d     d     d 

S 

d     d     d     d     d 

s 

§     §     S     §     S 

§  §  8  §  S 

d     d     d     d     d 

o     o     o     o     o 

T-l 

§  s  §  §  S 

d     d     d     d     d 

S 

d     d     d     d     d 

a 

d     d     d     d     d 

S 

§  g  o  i  § 

00000 

. 

8     c§     3     cl     5 

S 

d     d     d     d     o 

" 

00000 

II.—  ANNUAL  CHARGES  DUE  TO  A  RENEWAL 

i 

CO 

§  3  S  S  S 

s 

§     8     §     §     § 

o     o     o     o     o 

00000 

^-        O        CD        CO        CO 

S     CM     CM     co     in 

o> 

fe        CD        8        C§        S 

00000 

o     d     d     d     o 

0 
CD 
CO 

_o__g_g_o_o_ 

d     d     d     d     d 

00000 

co     in     1-1     c-     c~- 

Ti-       LO       CD       CD       CO 

CO 

°  °  °  s  i 

T-l        t-l        TH        O        CD 

d     d     d     d     d 

c. 

S  S  S  1  § 

s  s  3  a  s 

d     d     d     d     d 

CD 

a  s  i  §  § 

CD 

in 

o      c-     co     o     en 

in      ^t-     'i-     •*•     CM 

_d_e_g__P_o_ 

CO        CO        C»        C-        CD 

0       0       0       0       0 

in 

3     co     co      3     S 

CM        CM        05        CM        <M 

i  1  1  !  1 

o     o     o     o     o 

CO 

o     d     d     d     d 

Interest 
Rate. 

li 

*t-     in     CD     t-     CD 

•«*.    t£.     "ts.     ts.     >£• 
^-     in     CD     c--     o 

INDEX. 

CREOSOTED  WORK.  PAGE 

Aerial  Conductors 45 

Conductors 45 

Conduits 46 

Contractors'  Specifications 15 

Creosote,  Scientific  Standing  of. 15 

Cross  Arms 45 

Cross  Ties 47 

Culverts 47 

Dead  Oil  of  Coal  Tar  Compounds 19 

Pavement 49 

Piling 43 

Poles— Railway,  Telegraph,  Telephone 44 

Railway  Work 44 

Sewers 48 

Specifications  for  Contractors 51 

Telegraph  Work 44 

Telephone  Work 44 

Underground  Work 46,  47,  48 

PRESERVATION  OF  TIMBER. 

Creosote's  Scientific  Standing 15 

Norfolk  Creosoting  Company's  Methods 33 

Preface 5 

Teredo,  The  Destructive 7 

TABLES,  MISCELLANEOUS  SUBJECTS. 

Amortization 89,  90 

Beam  Formulae 63 

Beams,  Wooden,  Ultimate  Loads  for 73 

Chains,  Iron 70 

Chimneys 87 

Circles,  Areas  and  Circumferences  of 74-82 

Circular  Areas 82 

Dead  Oil  of  Coal  Tar  Compounds 19 

Gauges,  Wire 72 

Iron  Chains 70 

Iron  Pipe 67-73 

Manila  Rope 70 

Measures,  Length,  Commercial  Weight 85,  86 

Nails  and  Spikes 68 


92  INDEX 

TABLES,  MISCELLANEOUS  SUBJECTS. — CONTINUED.  PAGE 

Pillars,  Wooden 54 

Plate  Washers 69 

Railway  Trestle 59 

Rope,  Manila 70 

Rope,  Steel  Wire 71 

Saturated  Steam,  Properties  of. 66 

Screws 69 

Sheet  Metals 68 

Steam,  Properties  of  Saturated 83 

Steam,  Flow  Through  Straight  Pipes 66 

Steel  Wire  Rope 71 

Structural  Works,  Properties  of. 60 

Timber,  Round,  B.  M.  Volume 58 

Timber,  Sections,  Moments  of  Inertia 61 

Trestle,  Wooden,  Railway,  Approximate  Amount  of. 59 

Units,  Physical  and  Electrical 87 

Weights  and  Measures,  French  and  English 87 

Yellow  Pine,  Specifications,  etc 55 


Barrett  Manufacturing 
Company 

Land  Title  Building 
Philadelphia,  Pa. 

Largest  Distillers  in  the  world 
of  COAL  TAR  and  its 
BY-PRODUCTS 

(Roofing  Pitch,  Paving  Composition, 
Asphaltum  Cement,  Varnish,  etc.) 

Also  Manufacturers  of  "  Black 
Diamond"  Prepared  Roofing 
Roofers'  &  Slaters  Felts 
Insulating  Fibres 
Building  Papers,  Etc. 

Correspondence  respectfully  invited 

All  our  goods  bear  this  trade-mark 


Rcivport 

Shipbuilding  ana 
Drp  Dock  Co, 

WORKS  AT  NEWPORT  NEWS,  VA. 

(ON  HAMPTON  ROADS) 

Equipped  with  a  Basin  Dry 
Dock  capable  of  docking  a 
vessel  600  feet  long,  draw- 
ing 25  feet  of  water,  at  any 
stage  of  the  tide.  Repairs 
made  promptly  and  at  rea- 
sonable rates. 


^engine  Builders 


FOR  ESTIMATES  AND  FURTHER 
PARTICULARS,  ADDRESS 

C.    B.    ORCUTT,  President 

No.  i  Broadway,  New  York 

(ii) 


W.  W.  CUMMER,  President 

J.  CUMMER,  Vice-President 

E.  C.  FOSBURGH,  Sec'y.  aiid  Manager 

H.  J.  HOI^ISTER,  Treasurer 


THE  CUMMER  CO. 

NORFOLK,  VA. 

MANUFACTURERS  OF  ALL  KINDS  OF 

ROUGH  and  DRESSED 
KILN-DRIED 

INorbr)  yarolirja 

Pi 


ANNUAL  CAPACITY,  60,000,000  FEET 

(iv) 


GARBETT-BDCHANAN  COMPANY 

3,  5  and  12  DECATUR  ST. 

Philadelphia 


MANUFACTURERS  OF 


Roofing  and  Building 
...Papers... 

Goal  Tar  Products 

SOLE  MAKERS  OF  THE  CELEBRATED 

11  CANVAS  BACK  RED  ROPE  ROOFING" 

The  Cheapest  and  Most  Durable  Prepared 
Roofing  011  the  Market 

(v) 


ORGANIZED  J867 

The  Citizens  Bank 

OF  NORFOLK,  YA. 


CAPITAL  (PAID  IN),  $300,000,00 
SURPLUS  AND  PROFITS,  $200,000.00 


H.  PETERS,  President 
J.  W*  PERRY,  Vice-President 
WALTER  H.  DOYLE,  Cashier 


INTEREST  PAID  ON  TIME  DEPOSITS  BY  SPECIAL 
CONTRACT 

Bills  of  Exchange  issued  on  all  the  Principal 
Cities  of  Europe.  Charter  authorizes  Trust  and 
Fiduciary  Accounts,  and  to  act  as  Executor,  Ad- 
ministrator, Guardian,  Assignee,  Receiver,  Trustee 
and  Agent. 

Lock  Boxes  for  rent  in  the  best  appointed 
Deposit  Vaults  south  of  Philadelphia. 

...DIRECTORS... 

"WM.  H.  PETERS,  McD.  L.  WRENN, 

J.  W.  PERRY,  JOHN  N.  WILLIAMS, 

GEO.  C.  REID,  GEO.  A.  SCHMEI.Z, 

W.  CHAS.  HARDY,  RICHARD  H.  BAKER, 

G.  M.  SERPEU,,  THOS.  R.  BORLAND, 

WALTER  H.  DOYLE. 

(vi) 


Uhe  Uunis 
^Cumber  Company 


BALTIMORE,  MD. 
NORFOLK,  VA. 

MANUFACTURERS  OF 


Large  Modern  Saw  Mills  and  Planing  Mills  at 
Norfolk,  Virginia 

Planing  Mills  at  Baltimore,  Maryland 


North  Carolina  Pine,  Cypress 
and  Poplar 

FOR  FOREIGN  SHIPMENT 


WE  ARE  IN  THE  MARKET  FOR 


Mahogany  and  Cedar  Logs 


(vii) 


J.  B.  SANFORD,  President 

W.  B.  BROOKS,  JR.,  Vice- President 

J.  F.  SINTON,  Secretary  and  Treasurer 
\V .  H.  TAYLOR,  Manager 
W.  H.  DORSRY,  Engineer 


Sar)ford   o   Broolc^ 


Lorrmarw 


ii)§,    Dock,    Bridge   ai)d    Railroad 


No.  21  Soubb  Gay  Sb. 
Baltimore,  Md. 

BRANCH  OFFICE,  BAIvLBNTINE  BLDG. 


NORFOLK,  VA. 

(viii) 


less  Goal 


The  Standard  Fuel  of  the  United  States  Navy 

The  only  Fuel  that  has  been 

Officially  Endorsed  by  the  Governments  of 

Great  Britain  and  the  United  States 


It  is  SMOKELESS,  and  contains  more  heat  units  to 
the  pound  of  coal  and  will  evaporate  more  water,  hold  the 
fire  longer,  and  keep  up  steam  better  than  any  other  coal. 
It  makes  few  clinkers  and  burns  to  a  fine  light  ash. 

It  is  easy  for  the  engineers  and  firemen  and  economical 
for  the  purchaser. 


Castner,  Curran  &  Bullitt 

Sole  Agents 

328  Chestnut  Street,  Philadelphia. 
70  Kilby  Street,  Boston,  Mass, 
i  Broadway,  New  York. 

Citizens  Bank  Building,  Norfolk,  Va. 

Neave  Building,  Cincinnati,  Ohio. 

Terry  Building,  Roanoke,  Va. 

Old  Colony  Building,  Chicago,  111. 

4  Fenchurch  Avenue,  London,  England. 

(ix) 


Magnesia  •  Carbonate 

Very  light  and  bulky,  in  fine  powder 
for  manufacturing  purposes 

pure  Quality 

Made  at  the  new  factory  of  the 

Hmerican 
JMagncsia 
Company 

Plymouth  JMeeting,  pa. 


For  Insulating,  Boiler  and  Steam  Pipe  Covering,  Printing 
Ink  Making,  for  Lithographers'  Use,  Paint  and  Glass  Manu- 
facturers. Also  for  Plastic  Making  in  Fireproof  Buildings 


FOR  PARTICULARS  APPLY  TO 

Office    -    i  oo  OliUiani  Street 


W.  Edwin  Peregoy,  President  E.  A.  Robertson,  Secretary 

W.  W.  Robertson,  Treasurer  and  Manager 


'PHONES 

So.  STATES,  447 
So.  BELL,     1013 


Pocahontas  Lumber  Co. 

.WHOLESALE 

LUMBER,  LATHS 
SHINGLES  AND   PILING 

Citizens  Bank  Building 


Norfolk,  Va. 

(xi) 


NICHOLS  BROS. 

74  Cortlandt  Street         49  Commercial  Place 
NEW  YORK  NORFOLK,  VA. 


LOGGERS,    SHIPPERS 
AND  EXPORTERS  OF 

PINE,  OAK  AND  SPRUCE 

PILES 


DOCK  AND  BRIDGE  TIMBER 

(nil) 


City  National-  Bank 

Norfolk,  Va. 


United  States  Depositary 

City  Depositary  and 

United  States  Court  Depositary 

Capital  Stock $200,000 

Surplus  Profits ?0,000 

A.  E.  KRISE,  Pres. 
C.  A.  NASH,  Vice-Pres.  B.  W.  LEIGH,  Cashier. 

DIRECTORS 
BARTON  MEYERS,  JOHN  L.  ROPER, 

British  Consul.  President  of  John   L.   Roper 

Lumber  Co. 

R.  A.  DODSON,  W.  T.  SIMCOE, 

New  Atlantic  Hotel.  Of    Russell   &   Simcoe,    Dry 

Goods. 

C.  W.  FENTRESS,  W.  H.  MINOR, 

Of  C.  W.   Fentress   &   Co.,  Capitalist. 

Wholesale  Butter  and  Cheese. 

FLOYD  HUGHES,  JOHN  SHERIDAN, 

Of  Whitehurst  &  Hughes,  Of  Black,  Sheridan  &  Wilson, 

Attorneys.  Baltimore. 

S.  L.  FOSTER,  D.  F.  DONAVAN, 

Of  S.  L.  Foster  &  Son,  Roof-  Capitalist, 

ing  and  S'dewalks. 

We  solicit  your  business  and  correspondence 
Buy  and  sell  foreign  exchange 

(xiii) 


SUPPOSE 

&U PPOSE  your  house  is  on  fire,  what  is  the  easiest  way 
to  summon  the  Fire  Department? 

SUPPOSE  a  member  of  your  household  is  suddenly  and 
dangerously  ill,  immediate  attendance  of  a 
physician  means  life  or  death, — how  most 
quickly  obtain  that  attendance? 

SUPPOSE  any  one  of  the  many  emergencies  when 
police  aid  is  desirable  or  vitally  necessary, — 
how  may  these  guardians  of  life  and  property 
be  instantly  notified  ? 

SUPPOSE  unexpected  guests  arrive,  the  larder  is  low 

#  and  the  dinner  hour  near,  —how  connect  with 

the  butcher,  the  baker  and  the  confectioner 

and  hurriedly  gather  the  supplies  that  shall 

make  the  dinner  a  credit  to  the  housekeeper  ? 

SUPPOSE  you  wish  to  gather  a  group  of  guests  for  an 
evening  to  do  honor  to  an  occasion  or  a 
friend,— how  most  conveniently  communi- 
cate with  them  and  receive  their  acceptances 
or  regrets  ? 

SUPPOSE  you  are  interested  in  the  Stock  Market  or 
commercial  matter  of  any  sort,  but  desire 
to  stop  at  your  country  house  for  a  few 
days,— how  keep  in  constant  touch  with  Wall 
Street  and  the  market  centres? 

SUPPOSE  you  want  seats  for  the  play,  a  box  for  the 
opera,  a  carriage  for  a  drive,  to  engage 
places  at  a  restaurant, — how  in  incredibly 
short  time  arrange  it  all  ? 

SUPPOSE  you  are  obliged  to  travel,  leaving  a  member 
of  your  family  ill  at  home,— how  can  you 
receive  news  at  any  station  from  Boston  to 
Omaha — from  Montreal  to  Key  West? 

SUPPOSE  you  are  worried  and  flurried  and  bored  by 
the  petty  details  of  living — the  marketing, 
the  shopping  and  the  annoyance  of  the 
hustling  streets,  — how  sit  in  your  office  or 
library  and  press  a  button  which  shall  do  it 
all  for  you? 

SUPPOSE  you  would  know  the  answer  to  these  ques- 
tions. Here  it  is  :  The  greatest  Luxury, 
Convenience  and  Necessity  of  the  century  ; 

TELEPHONE  SERVICE 

THE  NEW  YORK  AND  NEW  JERSEY  TELEPHONE  COMPANY 
81  Willoughby  St.,  Brooklyn,  N.  Y. 


Ryland  &  Brooks  2.  s.  GAY  ST. 
Lumber  Co* 


Baltimore,  Md. 
U.  S.  A. 


North  Carolina  Pine  ffl 


Special  attention  given  to  EXPORT  orders 

Orders  taken  for  all  Kinds  Bill  Stuff 

Pitch  Pine,  Short  Leaf  Pine,  etc. 

K.  I,.  MAYER  WM.  M.  WHAI.EY 

MHYER  &  CO. 

Manufacturers,  Agents 
Importers  and  Dealers  in 

Machinery  and   Supplies 

74  COMMERCIAL  PLACE 

NORFOLK,  VA. 


Saws,  Rafting  Gear,  Bolts,  Nuts,  "Washers 

Engines  and  Boilers,  Pumps,  Injectors,  Syphons,  Hose 

Tools,  Shaftings  and  Pulleys,  Iron  Pipe,  Fittings, 

Valves,  Cocks,  Etc. 
Belting,  Packing,  Waste,  Iron  and  Steel,  Nails,  Oils,  Cordage 

(xv) 


E.B.  WARREN  &  CO. 

Chemical  Works* 

Paving  Cements  and  Roofing  Materials* 
27th  AND  H  STREETS,  N.  W., 

WASHINGTON,  D.  C. 

JAPAN-BLACK  VARNISH 

Years  of  continual  use  have  demonstrated  its  superiority. 
25  and  30  cts*  per  gal.,  barrel  included  (f.o.b.  Washington,  D.  C) 

Unexcelled  for  Roofs,  Railings,  Smokestacks,  and  all  iron  work  subject  to 

wear  and  exposure.     Also,  Woodwork  (wagons,  carts,  etc.) 

and  all  kinds  of  Brick\york.     Elastic  and  durable. 

Enamel  Paint  for  Hearths. 

PAVING  AND  ROOFING  PITCHES; 

Different  Grades  and  Superior  Quality. 

TARRED  ROOFING  PAPERS 

J-piy,  2-ply,  3-ply*  Cheapest  and  Best 

LIGHT  AND  HEAVY  OILS  OF  COAL-TAR 

TOMS  CREEK  COAL 

Unsurpassed  for  STEAM  Purposes 

Produces  a  maximum  amount  of  steam,  with  a  minimum 
of  ash  and  clinker.  Equally  good  for  Railway,  Manufac- 
turing or  Marine  uses.  Bears  transportation  well ;  reaches 
destination  in  nice  lumpy  condition,  and  retains  its  life  and 
strength  even  when  exposed  to  tropical  weather. 

Try  TOMS  CREEK  COKE  for  Foundry  and  Furnace  Uses 
Shipping  Point,  Lambert's  Point,  Norfolk,  Va. 

For  further  information,  address 

TRIGG    &    WILMER,  Agents  for 

Virginia  Iron,  Coal  and  Coke  Co. 

Norfolk,  Va.,  U.  S.  A. 

(xvi) 


ESTABLISHED  1861 


THOMAS  C.  BASSHOR  &  CO. 

OFFICE  AND  STORE 

28  Light  Street 

BOILER  WORKS 

Paca  and  Bush  Sts.,  and  B.  &  O.  R.  R. 
BALTIMORE,  MD.,  U.  S.  A. 

BUILDERS  OF 

Boilers,  Stacks  **  Tanks 

STEAM  HEATING 
High  -  Pressure   Steam   Piping 


A  SPECIALTY 


DEALERS  IN 


Machinists' and  Steamboat  Supplies 

AGENTS  FOR 

Fischer  Self-Oiling  Automatic  Engines 
Atlas  Engines  for  General  Use 


CYLINDERS  BORED  IN  PLACE 

(xvii) 


NATIONAL 
COAL  TAR  COMPANY 

JOO  WILLIAM  STREET 

NEW  YORK  CITY 


COAL  TAR  PRODUCTS 
CREOSOTE  OIL 

(Dead  Oil  of  Coal  Tar) 

ROOFING  MATERIALS 


PAVING  MATERIALS  : 


BUILDING  PAPERS 


CORRESPONDENCE  SOLICITED 
WITH  RESPONSIBLE   PARTIES 


The  Henry  Walke  Co, 

88  Water  Street,  Corner  Commerce 

NORFOLK,  VA. 

MANUFACTURERS'  AGENT  AND 
DEALER  IN 

HARDWARE,      RAILROAD,      STEAMBOAT 

ENGINEER  and  MILL  SUPPLIES 


SHIP  CHANDLERY 
PAINTS,    OILS,    ETC. 

A  full  stock  always  on  hand  of  all  material  pertaining  to 
the   Equipment  and  Running  of    Plants 

41  Giant  "and       I  AnfliAyi 
"LGdlllGl 


'  Giant  Planer 


-Giant,"  ^Granite" 
"Shawmut" 


ALL  SIZES  TO  18-INCH  ALWAYS  ON  HAND 

AGENTS  FOR 

ivEs'  STEAM:  PU 

MACHINERY  REPAIRED 

(xix) 


A.  D.  FRENCH 

44  BROAD  STREET 

NEW  YORK  CITY 

U.  S.  A. 

Manufacturer    and    "Wholesale    Dealer   in 

Long  Leaf  Yellow  Pine 

Octagonal  Poles 

Railroad  Ties,  Cross  Arms 

Insulator  Pins,  Brackets 

or  any  kind  of  Lumber  for  Telegraph 
or  Trolley  Work* 


Creosoted  Wooden   Poles 

are  cheaper  and  better  than  iron 
ones  for  tropical  work, 

Send  for  Circular 


I  can  save  you  money  when  in  the  market  for  creosoting. 
Inquiries  cheerfully  answered. 

(xx) 


LIDGERWOOD 

HOISTING  ENGINES 

are  built  to  gauge  on  the  duplicate  part  system 
QUICK  DELIVERY  ASSURED 

FOR  QUALITY 
AND  DUTY 

For  PILE  DRIVING 
BUILDING 
MINING 
RAILROADS 
CONTRACTORS  and 
GENERAL  HOISTING 
PURPOSES 

I|OVER 

16,000 

IN  USE 

STEAM     AND     ELECTRIC     HCISTS 

Cableways,  Hoisting  and  Conveying  Devices 

FOR 

Mining,  Quarrying,  Logging,  Dam  Construction,  Etc. 

SEND  FOR  LATEST  CATALOGUE 

LIDGERWOOD  MFG.  CO. 

96  Liberty  St.,  NEW  YORK 

(xxi) 


OSCAR  F.  SMITH,  President  JAMES  CAI^ER,  Vice-President 

JNO.  T.  GIBBS,  Secretary  and  Treasurer 


River,  Harbor  and  Dock 
Improvements 

217  WATER  STREET 

Corner  Roanoke  Square 

NORFOLK,  VA. 


Bell  Telephone  231 


Southern  States  Telephone  35 


(xxii) 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 
BERKELEY 

Return  to  desk  from  which  borrowed. 
This  book  is  DUE  on  the  last  date  stamped  below. 
G   LIBRARY 


MAY  25  1953^ 


LD  21-95m-ll,'50(2877slG)476 


YA  0307G 


793312 


Engineering 

'-.»..- 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 


